The Catholic Fourth Lateran Council (In 1215) Proposed Eerie Ideas That Would Be Revived Around WWII

(Painting of the Fourth Lateran Council, by Cesare Nebbia (Italian, Orvieto ca. 1536–1614 Orvieto), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons, Free Art License)

In 1215, Pope Innocent II (r. 1198-1216) called into session the Fourth Lateran Council. The council was made up of around 400 bishops, 800 other priests of high rank, and a large contingent of representatives on behalf of the monarchs of Christendom. The Fourth Lateran is lauded as one of the greatest church councils preceding the Council of Trent (1545-1563). The members of Pope Innocent II’s council debated reforming church theology, tithes and church lands. They also confirmed the idea of transubstantiation in the Eucharist, the Christian religious meal—transubstantiation argues that the bread and wine taken in the Eucharist transforms into the essence of Jesus’ blood and body. While the Fourth Lateran Council clarified and reformed the Catholic Church in many positive ways, it was in no way perfect. The council’s decisions concerning the treatment of Jews were especially awkward.

Canons 67 through 70 of the Fourth Lateran Council stated the church council’s decisions concerning what to do with the Jewish populations living in Christian lands. Canon 67 decreed that Jews could no longer loan money in return for an interest rate (usury), and the council argued that some Christians should be pressured by the church to end their commerce with Jews. Banning usury was not an uncommon occurrence, as the church thought usury was sinful (even for Christians) for much of history. Yet, Canon 67 specifically singled out Jews. The Council also proposed that if a Jew bought a home or building belonging to a Christian, the Jew would be required to continue paying the tithes of the Christian from which they were buying property—therefore the church would not loose any tithe money if Christians left their local parish.

In Canon 68, Jews and Muslims were ordered to wear clothing that distinguished their religion. The canon stated that this was to end intermarriage between Christians, Jews and Muslims. A copy of the Fourth Lateran Council found on The Global Catholic Network (EWTN) states,

“Whence it sometimes happens that by mistake Christians join with Jewish or Saracen women, and Jews or Saracens with Christian women. In order that the offense of such a damnable mixing may not spread further, under the excuse of a mistake of this kind, we decree that such persons of either sex, in every Christian province and at all times, are to be distinguished in public by the character of their dress” (Fourth Lateran Council, Canon 68).

Canon 69 forbade Jews from holding public office, arguing that Jews should not be given positions of power over Christians. At the end of the canon, the council decreed that pagans could not hold public office, either. Muslims were not mentioned in the canon, but were likely excluded from public office, as well, or at least faced discrimination. Canon 70 called for priests to be on the lookout for new Jewish converts to Christianity and to closely observe them for any sign of backsliding into their old religious habits. If a faltering convert was found, the priest was given permission to use “salutary or necessary coercion” (Fourth Lateran Council, 70). After Canon 70, the council diverged from the topic of Judaism and moved on to planning another Crusade.

Sources:

• The European Reformations (Second Edition) by Carter Lindberg. Massachusetts: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.  
• https://www.ewtn.com/library/COUNCILS/LATERAN4.HTM 
• http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09018a.htm  
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/Lateran-Council-Roman-Catholicism

The Bizarre Story Of The Nazi Leader, Rudolf Hess

(Rudolf Hess on trial at the International Military Tribunal, Nuremberg, c. 1946, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

In 1920, Rudolf Hess (1894-1987) joined the Nazi Party of Germany and quickly became one of Adolf Hitler’s confidants. He participated in the failed Beer Hall Putsch in 1923, and in the resulting imprisonment of Nazi Party members thereafter, he helped record and edit Hitler’s infamous manifesto, Mein Kampf. When Hitler began to ascend to real power, Rudolf Hess immediately became a high-ranking Nazi officer. Yet, though Hess was in Hitler’s inner circle, his position was frustratingly static—other leaders such as Hermann Göring and Martin Bormann kept Hess from attaining any more influence.

By 1941, Rudolf Hess was desperate to gain Adolf Hitler’s attention. On May 10, 1941, Hess secretly took off from Berlin, Germany, in a Messerschmitt airplane, crossed the English Channel and parachuted into Scotland while his plane plummeted to the earth. After the rough landing, the locals found Hess and offered him tea. The next day, Rudolf Hess obtained an audience with the Duke of Hamilton, during which the Nazi renegade declared that he had come to Britain to negotiate a peace between the British and the German Empires—obviously, with terms favoring the Nazi regime. Instead of negotiating, the British arrested Hess, and, because the Nazi was there without orders from Hitler, any possible diplomatic immunities were declared void. Rudolf Hess spent the rest of WWII imprisoned in Britain.

The reasons as to why Hess flew to Britain remain enormously debated. The man’s own statements show that he obviously felt, at least at first, that he was fated to broker a peace between Germany and Britain, allowing the Reich to have its way in mainland Europe. One unproven theory claims that Britain may have sowed this idea in Hess’ mind in a scheme, the so-called Operation Mistletoe, convincing the man to fly to Britain to negotiate peace. Yet, no matter the cause, Rudolf Hess was arrested in Scotland, leaving the Allied Powers amused and Hitler furious.

(Rudolf Hess reading the book Jugend by Ernst Claes in Landsberg Prison, c. 1945, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

After Hess was arrested, a string of consistent, odd behaviors became apparent. He thought he was being poisoned with substances causing symptoms ranging from irritation to amnesia. He also was convinced that his prison clothing was at one time laced with a rash-inducing substance. Hess was so paranoid that he would sometimes refuse to eat, for fear of poison. Around 1946, when he was sentenced to life imprisonment during the Nuremberg Trials, he was still convinced that his food was poisoned—he even gave a sealed package of suspect prison rations to a prominent psychologist named Dr. Douglas Kelley. The packets of food, to this day, remain in Maryland along with other Nuremberg memorabilia that was collected by Dr. Kelley, who sadly committed suicide by cyanide in front of his family in 1958.

With the conclusion of the Nuremberg Trials, Rudolf Hess was imprisoned at Spandau in Berlin, where he would remain for the rest of his life. In August 1987, the ninety-three year old Nazi was mysteriously found hanged to death by an electrical cord or cable—the death was deemed a suicide. Rudolf Hess had, indeed, attempted (unsuccessfully) to take his life on multiple occasions during his long imprisonment. Yet, many observers remain convinced that Hess was murdered or assassinated, pointing out Hess’ elderly infirmities, as well as governments or politicians who may have wanted Hess silenced or given further punishment.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Sources:

• http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/will-we-ever-know-why-nazi-leader-rudolf-hess-flew-scotland-middle-world-war-ii-180959040/  
• http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/defence/9149066/Report-into-Rudolf-Hess-death-fails-to-answer-unexplained-questions-about-Nazi-prisoners-suicide.html 
• http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/adolf-hitlers-nazi-deputy-rudolf-hess-murdered-by-british-agents-to-stop-him-spilling-wartime-8802603.html  
• http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/rudolf-hess-tale-poison-paranoia-and-tragedy-180952783/
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rudolf-Hess  

According To Norse Mythology, Life Would Continue After The Dark And Morbid Mythological Apocalypse of Ragnarok

(Odin fighting the Fenriswolf on Ragnarok, painted by Emil Doepler  (1855–1922), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

Most people think the mythological Norse apocalypse, Ragnarok, would be a complete eradication of life on earth. After all, according to myth, the earth would burn and all of the major gods would die during Ragnarok. Yet, instead of an end, Ragnarok was really more of a reset, or rebirth, of gods and man.

There is no denying that, according to myth, almost every single major name in Scandinavian mythology was fated to die in the battle of Ragnarok. The Prose Edda of Snorri Sturluson (1179-1241 CE) lists many of the deaths predicted to occur during the final apocalyptic battle. The deified sun and moon would both be swallowed by wolves. The high god, Odin, would also share this fate. Frey, absent his powerful sword, would be killed by Surt. Tyr and Garm would kill each other in combat. The trickster, Loki, and the watchman of the gods, Heimdall, would also duel, leading to their mutual deaths. Thor would kill the Midgard Serpent, but he, too, would die to the monster’s venom shortly thereafter. As for other forms of life, Surt’s fire would spread across the globe, causing widespread destruction and death.

Although Ragnarok sounds undeniably grim, Norse mythology provided a silver lining to the death of the gods and life, as we know it. The Prose Edda went on to claim that, after Ragnarok, a green, fertile land would emerge from the waters of the earth. Here, the survivors from Ragnarok would rebuild civilization, both divine and mundane.

A decent roster of minor Norse gods were predicted to survive Ragnarok and build a new home, called Idavoll, on top of the ruins of Asgard.  One important deity that would survive is the daughter of the deceased Sun. The myths claim that she would become the sun of the new world, following the same path as her mother. Two other gods named Vidar and Vali were predicted to survive Ragnarok, as well. Along with them, Thor’s sons, Modi and Magni, would also survive. They would bring Thor’s famous hammer, Mjollnir, to the new home of the gods at Idavoll. Interestingly, two dead gods, Baldr and Hod, were also predicted to come back to life and journey from Hel to meet the other surviving gods in the new divine city. As for other forms of life, The Prose Edda claimed that two beings named Lif (Life) and Leifthrasir (Life Yearner) would find shelter from the fire that destroyed the world. According to myth, these two people would repopulate the earth.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Sources:

• The Prose Edda by Snorri Sturluson, translated by Jesse Byock. New York: Penguin Classics, 2005. 

Thomas Jefferson’s Daughter Almost Became A Nun In A French Convent

(Portrait of Martha "Patsy" Jefferson Randolph painted by Thomas Sully  (1783–1872), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

From 1784-1789, Thomas Jefferson served as an American diplomat in Paris, France. Although Jefferson was genuinely charmed by the French people and their drive for revolution, he was also intimidated and mystified by the freedoms that French women had achieved. In the eyes of the quiet politician from Virginia who dreamed of a simple, rural society, the Parisian women seemed too overly active in politics and sex. When Jefferson’s two daughters were eventually shipped to Paris to be near their father, Thomas Jefferson’s concerns had already grown to a point where he decided his daughters needed to be isolated from the Parisian culture.

Martha Jefferson (known as Patsy) and Mary Jefferson (known as Polly and, later, as Maria) were both placed by their father in school at a convent in Panthemont. Thomas Jefferson was a Protestant (a peculiar one, at that) and he definitely did not want his daughters to become Catholic, but he obviously thought the nuns would be a better influence on his daughters than the rest of France. He hoped, and seemed to believe, that the nuns were separating their religion from the education that was being provided to his daughters in the school.  Nevertheless, Jefferson soon learned from letters sent by his children that the students were not as isolated from the rest of the world as he would have liked.

Even in the convent, the students heard ample scandalous gossip about events occurring locally and throughout France. Jefferson also learned that his daughters were gaining a thorough understanding of the French language—unfortunately, this was apparently detrimental to their native English. Patsy reported to her father that, although her ability to speak French had grown spectacularly fluent, her native English was becoming harder and harder to remember and use.

Yet, another jarring revelation from Patsy led Jefferson to the undeniable conclusion that his daughters needed to be evacuated from France—in April 1789, Patsy made the short-lived decision to become a nun. Upon hearing this news, the shocked Thomas Jefferson quickly drove his carriage to the convent at Panthemont and yanked his daughters away from the tutelage of the nuns. By September 1789, Jefferson ended his business in France and returned to his estate of Monticello in Virginia, putting the Atlantic Ocean between France and his daughters.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Source:

• American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson, by Joseph J. Ellis. New York: Vintage Books, 1998. 

The Argippaei—Herodotus’ Odd Community Of Bald Pacifists

(Swami Haridas is to the right, playing the lute; Akbar is to the left; Tansen is in the middle. Jaipur-Kishangarh mixed style, ca. 1750, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

The writings of the 5th-century historian, Herodotus, are always a fascinating read. Not only for the often-misinterpreted or incorrect historical information recorded by the father of history, but also for the immense amount of folklore and mythology that fill the pages of The Histories of Herodotus. Whenever Herodotus chose to describe a country or people, it was not uncommon for him to include a creation myth or folk tale concerning the person, place or people he was addressing. Fortunately for us, many of Herodotus’ tales and stories, though mostly historically inaccurate, remain incredibly odd and endlessly entertaining.

One such peculiar gem found in The Histories (Book IV) is an interesting description of a people that Herodotus called the Argippaei. This community was supposedly related in some way to the Scythians, a nomadic people that dominated the lands above the Black Sea, with their heartland in modern Ukraine and southern Russia. According to Herodotus, the Argippaei lived somewhere in a mountain range located in the northeastern periphery of Scythian territory. The Argippaei were far enough away from mainstream Scythian society that they developed their own, unique language. Yet, they apparently still wore the same style of clothing as any other Scythian known to Herodotus.

Geography, language and clothing, however, were not the most striking characteristics of the Argippaei community. According to Herodotus, every single member of the Argippaei people was born bald, both man and woman. Unfortunately for the Argippaei, other common characteristics that Herodotus attributed to them were snub noses and abnormally long chins.

If the community of bald, snub-nosed, long-chinned Argippaei were not strange enough, Herodotus recorded extra information about where these people slept and what they ate and drank. For both shelter and sustenance, Herodotus claimed that the Argippaei relied on a fruit tree. Apparently, every member (or maybe family) of the Argippaei had what Herodotus described as a ponticum tree, under which they lived and slept.

The ponticum trees were the primary source of food for the Argippaei, though sheep products were also present in their diet whenever herds could be sustained. According to Herodotus, the ponticum could grow to be as tall as a fig tree and it produced a fruit resembling a cherry. The Argippaei did much more than just eat these fruits raw. Herodotus wrote that the cherry-like fruit was also collected and juiced. The juice could be simply ingested plain or mixed with other drinks. Pulp left over from the juicing was also turned into fine cuisine, such as cakes.

The bald, fruit-loving Argippaei had a distinct philosophy. According to Herodotus, the Argippaei were ardent pacifists. They never went to war, and, mysteriously, no other tribes or nations could bring themselves to attack the bald, pacifistic community. The Argippaei people’s fervor for peace was so well known, that other countries apparently called on the Argippaei to mediate their wars and conflicts.

Today, no one is certain who inspired Herodotus’ vision of the Argippaei people. Some theories have been proposed, such as the Argippaei possibly being modeled after Buddhist or Daoist monks from India or China. For now, however, the Argippaei remain a mystery—an odd and entertaining mystery, at that.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Sources:

• The Histories by Herodotus, translated by Aubrey de Sélincourt and revised by John Marincola. New York: Penguin Classics, 2002. 

The Other Buried Army Of Chinese Statues—The Tomb Of Emperor Jing

(Mausoleum of Jingdi, Han Emperor, Xianyang, near Xi'an, photographed by Han Yang Ling, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

The great Terracotta Army of the first emperor of China, Shihuangdi (r. 221-210 BCE), was not the only horde of statues buried with an ancient Chinese Emperor. In fact, a far larger set of statuary has been found at the tomb of the Han Dynasty emperor, Jing (or Jingdi), located near modern-day Xi’an, China.

Emperor Jing is thought to have lived from around 188-141 BCE. He seemed to have been a fairly popular emperor, but had his fair share of imperfections. The greatest complaints against Emperor Jing’s character were his arrogance and his stubborn refusal to give credit to anyone but himself for the prosperity of his empire. He is also said to have beaten one of his cousins to death after becoming enraged during a tense game—possibly using a game board as a weapon.

Yet, for the most part, Emperor Jing ruled his people well. He was heavily influenced by Confucianism, but Daoism, especially its idea of a non-action interpretation of government, led to a style of government that allowed the people to rule themselves whenever it was pragmatic to do so. During the reign of Emperor Jing, taxes were reduced, military expeditions were lessened and brutal punishments, such as mutilation, fell into disuse.

Emperor Jing ensured that, upon death, his body would be placed in a tomb to rival the awe-inspiring display left by the first emperor, Shihuangdi. Since the first emperor was buried with a terracotta army around 6,000 strong, Emperor Jing sought to outdo his predecessor by bringing a miniature replica of his whole imperial lifestyle with him into the afterlife.

Emperor Jing brought a miniature city into the land of the dead. In his tomb complex, estimated at around ten square kilometers (or about four miles), Emperor Jing was buried with approximately 40,000-50,000 detailed miniature statues that would serve the emperor in the afterlife. Yet, his figurines did not just depict warriors. No, Emperor Jing brought his whole court and possessions into the afterlife. Among his tens of thousands of miniature statues were those of soldiers, courtiers, concubines, eunuchs, dancers, musicians, horses, livestock and pets. Along with the statues were miniature pots, metal seals, utensils and even tiny coins for the spirit statues to use in the afterlife. To complete the ensemble, many of the statues were also dressed in luxurious silk. Furthermore, Emperor Jing and his statues would not go thirsty into the afterlife, for the oldest tea leaves ever found in the history of archaeology were discovered stored in the elaborate tomb of Emperor Jing.

Sources:

• Raiders of the Jade Empire. Documentary, 2016.  
• http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/archaeologists-find-worlds-oldest-tea-tomb-han-dynasty-emperor-180957790/ 
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jingdi  
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Shihuangdi 
• https://www.lonelyplanet.com/china/xian/attractions/tomb-of-emperor-jingdi/a/poi-sig/1239657/356065  
• http://www.learnchinesehistory.com/emperor-jingdi-chinas-western-han-dynasty/ 
• http://www.chinahighlights.com/xian/attraction/hanyang-tomb.htm 

There Were Days Of Spontaneous Dancing In Japan To Celebrate The Approaching Meiji Restoration Of 1868

(Ōtsu-e Characters Dancing in the Bon Festival by Utagawa Hiroshige, c. 1847 - 1852, woodblock print, James Michener Collection, Honolulu Museum of Art, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

During the 1860s, the Tokugawa government of Japan was facing increasing pressure from all sides. As the decade progressed, more and more commoners, samurai, and even the emperor of Japan, all showed their displeasure with the leadership role of the Tokugawa clan as the shoguns of Japan.

In 1866, the Tokugawa government sent troops into the region of Chōshū, hoping to crush a hotbed of dissident samurai. Instead, numerous leading daimyo nobles turned their provinces (most notably Satsuma) against the Tokugawa and refused to aid with the invasion. In the end, what was meant to be a decisive strike against samurai rebels in Chōshū turned out to be an embarrassing defeat for the Tokugawa government.

With the power of the Tokugawa regime lower than it had ever been before, the dissident samurai began to mobilize their forces in order to topple the shogun government and restore the emperor to full power. As the authority of the Tokugawa government began to crumble irreparably, the average populace of Japan started to distinctly notice the political coup that was taking place in their country. There were well over a hundred domestic riots, both in cities and in the rural countryside during the year, 1866, before and following the failed attack on Chōshū.

Yet, there was an even more interesting phenomenon that occurred among the citizens of Japan, starting in 1867—partying. In central Japan (roughly from Osaka to modern Tokyo), there were many spontaneous festivals, seemingly thrown in honor of the shift in political power. One British observer, named George Wilson, witnessed one of these parties in Osaka, which he later recorded in his book, Patriots and Redeemers in Japan: Motives in the Meiji Restoration.

Wilson wrote that the party began after paper confetti, or luck charms, were tossed from the rooftops down into the streets. As if this was a signal, the city of Osaka erupted into a multiple-day festival. The people of the city dressed up in festive reds, blues and purples, and even carried red lanterns, or wore them on their heads. The houses, too, were decorated vibrantly with oranges, flowers, and colored decorations such as bags and rice-cakes. In the midst of all this color and decoration, the partiers sang, danced and drank aplenty. Parties such as the one held in Osaka remained in full swing throughout central Japan, despite demands from the eroding Tokugawa government that the celebrations be ceased. The partying continued into 1868, when the Tokugawa government was overthrown and the Emperor Meiji was restored.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Sources:

• A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa Times to the Present (Third Edition), by  Andrew Gordon. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014.