The Historian's Hut: Did You Know?: Archeology

Showing posts with label Archeology. Show all posts

Tuesday, April 16, 2019

A Eulogy For Notre-Dame De Paris

On the fifteenth of April, during the year 2019, the iconic Notre-Dame Cathedral in Paris suffered a catastrophic fire. Flames spread out from a maze of scaffolding built around the cathedral’s spire (nicknamed “the Arrow”), eventually reducing the spire and the roof of the beloved structure to cinders. Fiery debris collapsed inward, and, in some places, punched through the cathedral’s vaulted ceilings to reach the priceless interior of the church. Fortunately, church authorities have claimed that several key treasures (such as Notre-Dame’s Holy Crown of Thorns relic) were whisked away to safety. Yet, numerous cultural and religious wonders that adorned the cathedral have undoubtedly been destroyed or incredibly damaged. The site, however, is no stranger to adversity. Notre-Dame de Paris has faced looting, vandalism and wartime damage over the centuries. In spite of this, it has always proved to be a survivor; even now, the masonry and iconic shape of the Notre-Dame de Paris has survived the fire remarkably well. Someday, the cathedral may possibly be rebuilt in its old image—yet it will never be the same. For now, all we can do is remember Notre-Dame’s historic past and hope the best for the cathedral’s future.

Surrounded by the waters of the River Seine and situated in the center of Paris, the island known as the Île de la Cité has long been associated with religious worship. During the age of the Roman Empire, the site housed a temple of Jupiter, and when Christianity later became the dominant religion in Europe, Christians designated the Île de la Cité as a place worthy of their own houses of worship. At least three Christian churches were constructed on the island, the last of which was the famous Notre-Dame de Paris.

Around 1160, during the reign of King Louis VII of France (r. 1137-1180), the Parisian Bishop Maurice de Sully proposed the project that would become the Notre-Dame de Paris. Construction officially began in 1163, when Pope Alexander III (r. 1159-1181) ceremoniously placed down the first stone of the project. The building effort reached its first milestone step in 1189, when the high alter of the cathedral was consecrated. Yet, the project was still a long way from completion. During the 13th century, much of the building was constructed, including the nave and chapels, as well as its famous rose windows. The cathedral, however, still was not finished. In fact, construction was not officially completed until 1345, during the reign of King Philip VI (r. 1328-1350). Yet, even after that point, the Cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris continued to undergo change, with new additions, decorations and remodeling. Upon completion, the cathedral’s interior measured around 427 feet long by 157 feet wide (130 by 48 meters). The rooftop of the cathedral stood around 115 feet high (35 meters) and the iconic front towers reached even heigher at 223 feet (68 meters) each.

The Cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris faced its first major disaster during the French Revolution (c. 1789-1799). As the cathedral was associated with the French monarchy, it was ravaged and mistreated in the course of the revolution. Many of its windows were smashed. Bells were melted down and repurposed. Treasures were looted or destroyed. A reported twenty-eight statues of kings in the cathedral were pointedly decapitated. And, for a final touch, the cathedral, itself, was said to have been utilized by the revolutionaries as a warehouse. Yet, the cathedral found an interesting ally in Napoleon—he returned ownership of the Cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris to the church in 1802, and he later used the site as the venue for his coronation as Emperor of France in 1804.

Although Napoleon brought the cathedral back to a dignified state, it still was in urgent need of repairs. A new wave of interest in repairing Notre-Dame came from an unlikely source—a novelist. The inspiration for major restoration work on the cathedral is attributed to the influence of Victor Hugo, whose novel, The Hunchback of Notre Dame (published 1831), showcased the cathedral in its 15th-century glory. The novel greatly affected the French population and, as early as 1844, King Louis Philippe of France ordered that the Cathedral of Notre-Dame be restored. The project was spearheaded by Jean-Baptiste-Antoine Lassus and Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, who attempted to repair what was damaged and replace what was missing. To the best of their ability, they replaced the bells, stained glass and statues that had been destroyed during the French Revolution. Additionally, the team used old sketches and illustrations of Notre-Dame as a reference in order to rebuild or repair famous sections of the cathedral, such as the spire and bell tower.

The work of the 19th-century restorers shaped the Cathedral of Notre-Dame back into a structure of such beauty that it drew in tourists and pilgrims from around the world. Yet, on April 15, 2019, the Cathedral of Notre-Dame suffered a level of damage seemingly unprecedented in the history of the cathedral’s existence. Unfortunately, much of the tangible history lost in the fire cannot be replaced. Yet, history is always in the making, and, perhaps, the future of the cathedral will be just as beautiful and inspiring as its past.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Picture Attribution: (Edmund A. Hunt painting of Notre Dame de Paris, c. 1877, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons).

Sources:

Tuesday, March 12, 2019

The Archaeological Site Of Dura-Europos And The Ancient Corpses Still In Their Sapping Tunnels

The ruins of Dura-Europos are one of those astounding sites that archaeologists and historians can’t help but cherish. The Seleucid Empire—one of a few empires that came to power after the death of Alexander the Great—founded the city around 300 BCE. An array of different empires conquered the city. First, the Parthians took Dura-Europos in the 2nd century BCE. They ruled the region until the Roman Empire took the city from them in 165 CE. In less than a hundred years, the city was yet again under threat. This time, the invading army was the Sassanid-Persian Empire. They besieged and overran the Roman defenses somewhere around 256 CE and evidence from the battle can still be found there today.

While the Dura-Europos archeological dig site has an astounding variety of preserved art and city structures (Jewish synagogue, Christian house-church, and a cult of Mithras Mithraeum), the surviving evidence of the Sassanid siege of the city is equally important. Tower 19, one of the points the Sassanid attacked during the siege of Dura-Europos, gives tangible evidence of one of the less-discussed tactics of ancient warfare—sapping (tunneling and mining to weaken defenses). Dura-Europos’ assault ramps and sapping tunnels allow rare tangible visualization of ancient styles of warfare.

The archeological dig site of Dura-Europos not only has evidence of a Sassanid sapping tunnel; they also found a Roman counter mine, used by the Romans to intercept the besieging tunnelers. The tunnels of the sappers and the counter-miners met, and an underground skirmish broke out. What occurred next is not known, the only fact is that one Sassanid skeleton, and twenty Roman skeletons, were found still in their underground tunnels. Robert du Mesnil du Buisson’s theory of the events is that the Sassanians set fire to the Roman countermine, causing fearful city defenders to block the exit, trapping the twenty Roman soldiers inside. Dr. Simon James has an alternate theory that points to an early form of chemical warfare; he claims that the Sassanians created a poisonous smoke that killed the Romans in the tunnel. As the Roman countermine was higher up than the Sassanid sapping tunnel, any poisonous smoke would have risen up to the Romans. Either way, something happened to leave men dead in the tunnels of Dura-Europos until their recent excavation.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Top Picture Attribution: (A Synagogue painting combined with a photograph of Sassanid skeleton (both from Dura Europos), c. 3rd century, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons).

If remains from an underground skirmish are not exciting enough, numerous beautiful paintings have also been found at Dura-Europos:

(Wall painting in the Dura Europos synagogue, North wall, B register - the battle of Eben Ezer, right part. [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

(Illustration of a scene from the Book of Esther discovered in Dura Europos, c. 3rd century, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

(Wall painting frome the West wall, register B, in the Dura Europos synagogue, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

Sources:

Tuesday, January 9, 2018

The Scythians Of Herodotus Versus The Scythians Discovered By Archaeologists

Much of what we know about the Scythians comes from Herodotus, the 5th-century BCE father of history from Halicarnassus. In book four of The Histories, Herodotus described what he had found out about the origin story of the Scythian people, their military exploits and what he perceived to be their daily lifestyle.

The framework of Herodotus’ history of the Scythians is fairly accurate. He wrote that the Scythians were a fierce nomadic tribe that specialized in horsemanship and archery. As warriors, they were powerful enough to strike fear into the hearts of both the Greeks and the Persians. They even successfully repelled a massive invasion led by the Persian King Darius I in the late 6th-century, years before the Persians decided to launch their ill-fated campaigns against Greece.

On the other hand, Herodotus wrote about more (fair warning) rather graphic and disturbing accounts, where truth became increasingly merged with folklore. Among other statements, Herodotus claimed that the Scythians held annual sacrifices to their gods, where horses, cattle and prisoners of war were ceremoniously slaughtered. During this ritual, Herodotus claimed that the Scythians cut off the right arms of the human sacrifices and sometimes drank the blood of their victims.

The ancient historian elaborated on the subject of what the Scythians did to their fallen enemies—he claimed that they severed the heads of their foes for the purpose of using them as tokens to determine the size of their share in war loot. According to Herodotus, the Scythians did not let these heads go to waste. The historian matter-of-factly claimed that the Scythians transformed the scalps into handkerchiefs, and after accumulating a number of these macabre trophies, they would be sewn into forms of clothing. Herodotus went on to say that skulls of the slain were particularly important. He claimed that the Scythians made grisly chalices or bowls from the skullcaps, covered with hide on the outside and sometimes gilded on the interior.

While Herodotus’s account is a fascinating read, archaeologists have found little evidence to back up his claims. For example, at least 5,700 golden artifacts were uncovered in a Scythian burial mound (called a kurgan) excavated in Tuva, Siberia, yet not a single skull chalice was found among the horde of treasure. Similarly, furs and the fragments of cloth garments were discovered in the mound, but no evidence of clothing made from human skin was found. Even so, some of Herodotus’ other claims are plausible. The killing of prisoners and the keeping of unsettling war trophies was, unfortunately, a fairly common practice in many areas of the ancient world. As for sacrifices, archaeologists did indeed find horses, servants and concubines who were killed and buried along with fallen Scythian kings in their burial grounds, but this tragic practice, too, was not uncommon in other areas of the world.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Picture attribution: (Decoration from the top of a Scythian comb. Found in the Soloha kurgan. Now resides in the Hermitage museum, St. Petersburg, Russia, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons).

Sources:

From The Histories by Herodotus (Book IV), translated by Aubrey De Sélincourt and revised by John Marincola (Penguin Classics, 2002).
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Scythian
https://www.ancient.eu/timeline/Scythians/
http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/features/world/europe/russia/scythians-text/1
https://www.archaeology.org/slideshow/4562-russia-scythian-burial-mound-slideshow
https://www.realmofhistory.com/2016/07/09/10-facts-scythians-warfare/
http://listverse.com/2010/01/05/top-10-interesting-facts-about-the-scythians/

Wednesday, July 5, 2017

A Macabre Aztec Chapel Made Of Severed Skulls Has Been Unearthed In Mexico City

(Temple of the Aztec God, Huitzilopochtli, by Tovar, Juan de, circa 1546-1626, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

In 2015, archaeologists in Mexico City began to uncover one of the darkest monuments from the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. It all began when, near the ruins of the Templo Mayor, archaeologists began unearthing layer after layer of severed human skulls. As the skulls accumulated into the hundreds, nearing thousands, they realized they had likely found the Huey Tzompantli, a tower of skulls that even mortified the Spanish conquistadores of Hernan Cortes in 1521.

According to the legend, the tower of human remains was supposed to be constructed from the decapitated skulls of enemy warriors who had been defeated by the Aztecs. Now, with hundreds of skulls to study, archaeologists have found that the legend was not entirely true. Among the tower of skulls, remains of women and children have been found.

If the site discovered by archaeologists is truly the Huey Tzompantli, as described by conquistadores such as Andrés de Tapia and Bernal Diaz del Castillo, then it is likely that many more skulls will be discovered. After all, the site is believed to have been a chapel devoted to the Aztec sun-god Huitzilopochtli, a deity of war and human sacrifice.

In both of the accounts given by the two Spanish conquistadores listed above, the Huey Tzompantli was estimated to have around 100,000 skulls lining its walls. As of now (written in 2017), the number of skulls that archaeologist have uncovered are nearing 700. Yet, the site is estimated to be 200 feet in diameter (around 60 meters), and they still have not reached the tower’s base. As a result, many more grisly discoveries likely lie in wait.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Sources:

Thursday, June 22, 2017

A Donkey Made One Of The Greatest Archaeological Finds In Egypt

(Donkey and the Pyramids of Giza, both [Public Domain] via Pixabay and goodfreephotos.com)

In 1996, fate found an agent in an unnamed donkey belonging to the antiquities security patrol of the Temple of Alexander, in the Bahariya Oasis, southwest of Cairo, Egypt. Reports of what happened vary slightly, but the results all end the same—with one of the greatest discoveries of modern Egyptology. Two stories can be found about the donkey and its important accomplishment. In one account, the donkey got loose from its handler and was later found staring at a hole in the ground. The other version claims that the security patrol and the donkey were doing their rounds, when the beast’s leg fell into a hole. Either way, the donkey found a sprawling complex of tombs containing an unknown amount of wall paintings and mummies.

Renowned Egyptologist, Dr. Zahi Hawass, took over the excavation and study of the site in 1996. The tomb complex is now known as The Valley of the Golden Mummies and contains as many as 10,000 possible mummies. Already, around 250 mummies have been found. More importantly, the tombs, and the mummies and paintings within them, date to the Greco-Roman Period (332 BCE-395 CE), giving valuable insight into how the Greek and Roman cultures interacted with, or were absorbed by, the potent and durable Egyptian culture.

As the name “Valley of the Golden Mummies” suggests, many of the mummies found in the Bahariya Oasis tombs were covered with gold. Interestingly, many non-Egyptian mummies have been found in the tombs. These Greco-Roman elites seemed to have taken a liking to Egyptian burial traditions, for their remains were mummified and laid to rest with golden burial masks. Still, old customs were hard to relinquish—many of the Greco-Roman mummies had coins on their person with which to pay the ferryman of dead souls, Charon, for passage into the underworld.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Sources:

Egypt’s Ten Greatest Discoveries. Written by Dr. Zahi Hawass and produced by Discovery. Documentary, 2008.
http://www.crystalinks.com/bahariya.html
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/03/0329_goldenmummynew.html
http://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-antiquities-tomb-idUSTRE63B38Y20100412
http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/bahariyaoasis.htm