The Names of Mythical And Legendary Roman Figures Interestingly Align With The Historical Advent Of Complex Family Names In Ancient Rome

Ancient Rome’s creation myth and the legends about its earliest kings are more often than not totally unreliable as historical sources except for as an insight into the Roman sense of self and national identity. T. J. Cornell, a leading authority on the history of ancient Rome, bluntly wrote “In general the narrative accounts of the origins of Rome, from Aeneas to Romulus, cannot be considered historical” and of the early legendary kings such as Numa Pompilius and Tullus Hostilius, he similarly claimed that “the traditional chronology is historically impossible” (The Beginnings of Rome, 1995, pg 80 and 121). Yet, there is one particular concept where traditional folklore and ancient reality seemed to have lined up intriguingly well—in names.

The myths and tales of ancient Rome begin with a long list of people with single-word names. Aeneas sails to Italy. Ascanius succeeded Aeneas and was, in turn, succeeded by Silvius. With the exception of a few anomalies, the folkloric ancestors of Rome’s founders were usually described with one name. A supposed distant ancestor of Silvius was Proca, who fathered two kings: Amulius and Numitor—and Numitor was traditionally the grandfather of the famous twins, Romulus and Remus.

According to tradition, Romulus’ mythical reign as the first king of Rome was dated to around 753-717 BCE. In terms of archaeologically-grounded history, the supposed reign of Romulus does correspond with a time of urbanization in the Roman region, as there are tangible signs that a powerful and wealthy Roman aristocracy had formed by the late 8th century BCE and especially in the 7th century BCE.

Around the same time that Rome and its Italian neighbors were undergoing urbanization, there was also a name revolution spreading in the region. Around the early 7th century BCE, the Etruscans of Etruria had begun labeling themselves with more complex names that had family and clan identifiers. The Romans were not far behind, adopting the practice of using longer, more complex, names by the end of the 7th century BCE. Interestingly, the names of the legendary kings after Romulus (whose mythical reign ended in 717 BCE), correlate to that name revolution. Romulus had a co-king named Titus Tatius. Romulus’ successor was Numa Pompilius (traditionally dated r. 716-674 BCE) and after him came Tullus Hostilius (r. 673-642 BCE), then Ancus Marcius (641-617 BCE). With the rise of the Tarquin family, the names became even more complex. First there was Lucius Tarquinius Priscus (r. 616-578 BCE), then Servius Tullius (r. 578-534 BCE), and finally Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (r. 534-509 BCE), who, according to tradition, was overthrown by Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus in 509 BCE. Although much of the ancient accounts of pre-Republic Rome cannot be reconciled with historical evidence, tradition and archaeology do align surprisingly well on the advent of more complex names in Italy.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Picture Attribution: (Painting of the legendary Roman dictator, Cincinnatus, painted by Juan Antonio de Ribera (1779–1860), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons).

Sources:

• The History of Rome by Livy, translated by Aubrey de Sélincourt. New York: Penguin Classics, 2002.
• The Beginnings of Rome by T. J. Cornell. New York: Routledge, 1995.

The Furies, Or Erinyes, Of Greek And Roman Mythology

Few creatures of ancient myth were described as being more grotesque than the Furies, also known as the Erinyes. According to legend, the Furies consisted of three vengeful goddesses named Alecto, Megaera and Tisipone. One of the more prominent myths of their birth claimed that the Furies were mothered by the primordial earth goddess, Gaia; she was allegedly impregnated by the dripping blood of Uranus, who was murdered by his own son, Cronus.

Generally, the Furies were supposed to be servants of the underworld, at the heed of its king and queen—Hades and Persephone. Yet, they also seemed to have been open to contracts handed down to them by other gods and goddesses. For example, Virgil wrote in The Aeneid that Juno (the Roman equivalent of the goddess, Hera) sent Alecto to spread rage and madness in Italy, in order to bring about a war between the native Italians and the Trojan refugees that landed there after being displaced by the Trojan War. Besides doing the bidding of the gods, the Furies were also bounty hunters that tracked down and punished those who transgressed the gods or universal laws, especially crimes against one’s own family.

The characteristics and abilities of the Furies were an interesting mixture of powers that could be found in other mythological beings. Like harpies, the Furies often were depicted as ferocious female creatures with wings. Like gorgons, the hair of the Furies was made up of coiling snakes. For weapons, the Furies carried whips, but they also had the supernatural ability to instill madness and rage in their enemies. Other aspects of their appearance could change based on the imagination of the commentator. Sometimes they wore robes, and at other times they dressed in shorter cloth garments. Similarly, their eyes could at times seem to be on fire, but at other times they could be described as having eyes that dripped blood.

Once the Furies were on the trail of prey, they were persistent and unforgiving huntresses. According to legend, the Furies could sometimes be appeased by rituals of purification or shows of atonement. Another option that required less work, but more luck, was to gain the sympathy of one of the gods—in the case of Orestes, Athena successfully ordered the Furies to end their hunt.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Picture attribution: (The Furies and other underworld creatures by Wenceslaus Hollar (1607–1677), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons).

Sources:

• The Aeneid by Virgil, translated by Robert Fagles. New York: Penguin Books, 2006. 
• http://www.theoi.com/Khthonios/Erinyes.html 
• http://www.pantheon.org/articles/a/alecto.html  

Virgil’s Aeneid Contained Some Peculiar Nautical Sea Nymphs

(THE NYMPH ROSE FROM THE SEA AND BORE THE VEIL AWAY, by William Heath Robinson (1872-1944), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

Ancient origin myths and creation stories can be really strange. So, too, are many of the creatures and monsters found in mythology weird and bizarre. Therefore, it is not surprise that the origin stories of some mythological beings are especially odd.

A particular band of sea nymphs found in the poetic verse of The Aeneid by Virgil (70-19 BCE) perfectly illustrates how peculiarly some mythological entities were born. The epic poem about Aeneas follows a band of Trojan refugees journeying to make a new life in Italy, only to be constantly harrassed by the goddess Juno and the various peoples (Carthaginians and native Italians) she riled up against the homeless wanderers. Just like in The Illiad and The Odyssey, the gods choose sides and intervene on multiple occasions to help, or hinder, the characters of the story.

One of the stranger supernatural events of The Aeneid, however, is the birth of a group of sea nymphs. These nymphs were not brought about by the promiscuity of the gods, or curses or blessings placed on humans, as many other creatures of myth came into being. No, these particular nymphs from The Aeneid actually originated as the ships used by Aeneas and his Trojan companions. When the Trojan refugees and the Italian Latins mobilized their forces to make war against each other, the ships of the Trojans broke their mooring lines, transformed into nymphs and dove into the ocean. This is the passage that describes the transformation of ships into sea nymphs:

“And all at once,

each vessel snapping her cables free of the bank,

they dive like dolphins, plunging headlong beaks

to the bottom’s depths, then up they surface,

turned into lovely virgins—wondrous omen—

each a sea-nymph sweeping out to sea.”

• From The Aeneid by Virgil (Book Nine), translated by Robert Fagles (Penguin Classics edition), 2010.

The nymphs return to aid the Trojans later, where they give Aeneas an account of their birth:

“A troop of his comrades comes to meet him,

halfway home, the nymphs that kindly Cybebe told

to rule the sea in power, changing the ships

to sea-nymphs swimming abreast, cutting the waves,

as many as all the bronze prows berthed at anchor once.

They know their king far off, circling, dancing round him

and one, most eloquent of them all, Cymodocea swims in

on his wake and grips his stern with her right hand,

arching her back above the swells as her left hand

rows the silent waves, and she calls out to Aeneas,

lost to it all: “Awake Aeneas, son of the gods?

Wake up! Fling your sheets to the winds, sail free!

Here we are, the pines from the sacred ridge of Ida,

When traitorous Turnus forced us headlong on

with sword and torch, we burst your mooring lines,

we had no choice, and now we scour the seas

to find our captain. The Great Mother pitied us,

changed our shape, she made us goddesses, yes,

And so we pass our lives beneath the waves.”

• From The Aeneid by Virgil (Book Ten), translated by Robert Fagles (Penguin Classics edition), 2010.

Written by C. Keith Hansley