The Deadly Rivalry Between Wei Qing and Li Gan

In 119 BCE, the accomplished Chinese military leader, Wei Qing, launched one of his many incursions into Xiongnu territory on behalf of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141-87 BCE). With him was a subordinate general named Li Guang, a well-respected, but also well-aged, warrior. Although Li Guang was an inspiring officer, with a near-legendary skill with a bow, both Wei Qing and Emperor Wu had their reservations about the old general’s capabilities. Heeding these doubts, Wei Qing decided to remove Li Guang from the vanguard of his army, and instead sent him to reinforce the army’s right flank. Yet, while Li Guang and his forces were traveling to their new position, they unfortunately became lost and fell behind the rest of the army. In the end, Li Guang missed the battle between Wei Qing and the Xiongnu.

Despite Li Guang’s absence, Wei Qing won the day—he nearly encircled the enemy forces, but the Xiongnu leader was able to punch through the Han lines with his cavalry and escape. After the battle, Wei Qing summoned Li Guang to answer for his absence during the battle. Officials in the army would then send a report to the emperor of both the accusations and the general’s responses. The old military leader knew from experience that such unflattering reports could lead to a general being imprisoned, stripped of his titles, and possibly executed. Therefore, the seasoned warrior arrived at the meeting with Wei Qing in a grim state of mind.  According to the Grand Historian, Sima Qian (c. 145-90 BCE), the disgruntled Li Guang appeared for his hearing and abruptly stated “Now I am over sixty—much too old to stand up to a bunch of petty clerks and their lists of charges!” (Shi JI 109). He then unsheathed his sword and cut his own throat.

Many in China mourned the death of Li Guang, but the late general’s son, Li Gan, had the most visceral reaction. Li Gan, like his father, served in the Han military, and he distinguished himself enough in battle to be given the noble rank of marquis, a title also held by the aforementioned Wei Qing. The two marquises, unsurprisingly, did not get along. Li Gan held Wei Qing responsible for driving his father to suicide and Wei Qing, in response, was irritated by Li Gan’s attitude. The friction between the two men steadily built, and, in a moment of weakness, Li Gan lost his composure and physically struck Wei Qing. The general was injured, but the wound was not serious, as Wei Qing quickly recovered and neither he or his friends filed charges against Li Gan. Unfortunately, Wei Qing’s mercy over this incident did not mean that Li Gan was forgiven.

At a later date, both Li Gan and other prominent men of the empire joined the emperor at the Palace of Sweet Springs. Emperor Wu and his courtiers, as noblemen were often wont to do, decided to go on a hunting trip. Yet, the outdoor excursion would prove to be anything but calm and peaceful.

During the course of the hunt, Li Gan eventually paired up with Huo Qubing, a devoted friend and relative of Wei Qing. Unfortunately, only one of the two would survive the hunt. At an unknown time during the trip, Li Gan was found dead and his body contained a suspicious puncture wound. Huo Qubing reportedly witnessed the death and he told the emperor that the dead marquis was killed by a deer. He claimed that, as they hunted together, he and Li Gan encountered an aggressive stag. Despite both hunters being great archers, this stag supposedly rushed the noblemen and fatally impaled Li Gan with an antler. Emperor Wu, who was fond of Huo Qubing, believed (or did not question) the story and publicly backed Huo Qubing’s testimony. Sima Qian and other contemporaries, however, viewed the death with much more suspicion. By the time Sima Qian began writing his Records of the Grand Historian, he had become convinced that Li Gan was murdered:

“When the party reached the Palace of Sweet Springs, an imperial hunt was held. Huo Qubing, who was on very close terms with Wei Qing, took the opportunity to shoot and kill Li Gan. At this time, Huo Qubing enjoyed great favor with the emperor, and the emperor therefore covered for him, giving out the story that Li Gan had been gored and killed by a stag. A year or so later, Huo Qubing died [117 BCE]” (Shi JI 109).

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Picture Attribution: (The Qianlong Emperor Hunting Hare, by Giuseppe Castiglione (1688–1766), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons).

Sources:

• Records of the Grand Historian (Shi Ji 109) by Sima Qian. Translated by Burton Watson (Columbia University Press, 1993).
• http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/personsweiqing.html 
• http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/personshuoqubing.html  

The Ancient Balearic Islands War Against Rabbits

During the lifetime of the geographer, Strabo (c. 64 BCE-23 CE), the people of the Balearic Islands were undergoing a life-and-death war with a prolific foe. The invaders targeted the islands’ food supply, destroying harvests, harming trees, and causing famine. Even though the people of the Balearic Islands were renowned for their slingshot prowess, the islanders were not able to drive off the pillagers. According to Strabo and Pliny the Elder (c. 23-79), the Balearic Islanders were desperate enough to turn the tide of war against their foe that they sent representatives to Rome in order to beg Augustus (r. 27 BCE-14 CE) for military aid. It might have been an awkward conversation, for the foes that were giving the islanders so much trouble were not pirates or hostile neighbors—instead, the bane of the Balearic Islands was a populous horde of hungry rabbits.

Augustus’ exact response to the plea of the islanders is vague in our existent sources, but he evidently did decide to help the Balearic Islands with their rabbit problem. Part of his solution was apparently to send hunters and trappers to help contain the rabbit population and to teach the islanders better ways to hunt the hopping pests. A key component of the war on rabbits, according to Strabo and Pliny, was to send ferrets to the Balearic island. These “wild cats from Africa,” as Strabo oddly called the ferrets (Geography, I.2.6), were unleashed into the rabbit burrows, forcing the animals up to the surface and into the hands of the awaiting hunters. According to Strabo, Augustus’ efforts succeeded and the rabbit population was eventually brought down to a safe and manageable level. By the time Pliny the Elder finished his Natural History in the year 77, the fortune of the rabbits on the Baleric Island had completely changed, as the animals had by then become a culinary delicacy.

Written by C. Keith Hansley

Picture Attribution: (Floor mosaic representing a centaur, from the Acropolis of Rhodes, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons).

Sources:

• Strabo's Geography, translated by H.C. Hamilton and W. Falconer (1903 edition), republished in The Complete Works of Strabo (Delphi Classics, 2016).
• http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D8%3Achapter%3D81  

Emperor Domitian Was Reportedly A Master Archer

Domitian was the third and final member of the Flavian Dynasty, which was begun by his father, Vespasian, in the year, 69. Domitian ascended to the throne after the death of his brother, Titus, who ruled briefly from 79 to 81. As an emperor, Domitian was a complex person. For his heightened authoritarianism, megalomania, and oppression of the senatorial class, Roman elites of Domitian’s day detested the emperor. Yet, he also had another side to his personality—he enjoyed poetry, he wrote a book on hair care, he replenished texts in libraries that were damaged by fire, outlawed the practice of castration, and even did an effective job of combating corruption among regional magistrates and governors. Additionally, at least according to the biographer Suetonius (c. 70-130+), Domitian could impressively be ranked as one of the best bowmen in the Roman Empire.

Although Domitian allegedly did not like to hike, ride horses, or physically exert himself, he reportedly found enjoyment in hunting. While on his wooded estates, Domitian frequently hunted wild game, often with spectators in tow. Guards and guests could expect to be amazed by wondrous feats of archery whenever they followed the emperor on his hunting trips. Any unlucky animal that crossed Domitian’s path did not stand much of a chance—the emperor prided himself on felling his prey with precise shots to the head. Suetonius claimed that many eyewitnesses were present for these hunting feats and that hundreds of animals fell victim to the emperor’s bowmanship.

If Domitian was in a mood to show off, he could be easily talked into putting on a sharpshooting exposition.  Suetonius recorded one of the favorite ways that the emperor would astound his audiences with his marksmanship skills—it was a trick that involved firing at humans. For his expositions, Domitian occasionally ordered a very brave slave to stand down range. It was imperative that the slave was able to keep calm while staring down death; he or she could not be the type of person with fingers that trembled with fear. When the human target was in position and Domition had his bow and arrow at the ready, the unfortunate slave would then be instructed to extend a hand and splay his fingers wide apart. As guests watched with nervous anticipation, Domition would masterfully fire his arrows through the spaces between the tense fingers of the slave.

Unfortunately, Domitian did not have his bow with him on September 18, 96. That day, a group of conspirators cornered an unarmed Domitian in a room and stabbed the emperor to death. He was forty-four years old at the time of his death and had been in power for fifteen years.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Picture Attribution: (Hunter and a Lion from Antioch mosaics in the Worcester Art Museum, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA. [Public Domain] via Creative Commons).

Sources:

• The Twelve Caesars (Domitian) by Suetonius, translated by Robert Graves and edited by James B. Rives. New York: Penguin Classics, 2007.
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Domitian  

Leo VI Was Imprisoned By His Father For Nearly Three Years Before Becoming Emperor Of Constantinople

Emperor Basil I descended from a family of Armenian refugees and grew up in Macedonia, hence his nickname, Basil the Macedonian, and the title of his dynasty—the Macedonian Dynasty. Through dubious means, Basil became an immensely wealthy landowner and joined the inner circle of Emperor Michael III (r. 842-867). At first, Basil and Michael were close friends, with Basil even being granted a position as co-emperor in 886, yet the two men quickly began to plot against each other. On September 24, 867, Basil I finally succeeded in having Michael III assassinated and seized sole control of the empire.

Like all sensible monarchs, Basil I was eager to groom an heir for the longevity of the Macedonian dynasty. Basil’s first pick was Constantine, his oldest son, but this heir unfortunately died of a fever on September 3, 879. With the death of Constantine, Basil’s second son, Leo, suddenly found himself advanced to the position of heir to the empire—Leo was only about thirteen years old at the time.

Basil immediately began preparing his son for future rule. The emperor arranged a marriage for his son—one to which Leo was bitterly opposed—and he often brought the boy out on hunting trips. Young Leo also began receiving more attention from his father’s vassals, some of which were not loyal to Basil.

In the autumn of 883, Leo found himself embroiled in the shadowy politics of government in Constantinople. The young heir, only about seventeen at the time, seemed to have become mixed up in a plot against Emperor Basil I. How complicit he was in the conspiracy remains debated—some sources (like John Skylitzes, c. 1040-1101) claimed that Leo was tricked into joining the plot, while others proposed that Leo willingly conspired because of the ill-will caused by his recent arranged marriage. Whatever the case, the plot was discovered before any nefarious action could take place and a disappointed Basil had his son ingloriously thrown in jail.

Basil I supposedly considered having his son blinded—a punishment for traitors and a disqualification from the throne (a blind man was not permitted to rule the empire). Fortunately for Leo, however, there were still numerous powerful individuals who sympathized with the young prince and they were able to restrain Basil’s wrath. Leo’s eyes were spared, but Basil kept his son locked in prison for almost three years.

Leo was finally released from jail on July 20, 886, and his status as heir to the empire was reaffirmed. The timing could not have been better, for Emperor Basil I died the following month, on August 29, either succumbing to illness or dying of wounds sustained in a hunting accident. Upon the death of his father, Leo VI (r. 886-912) ascended to the throne and was eventually known as Leo the Philosopher or Leo the Wise.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Picture Attribution: (Imperial Gate mosaics in the former basilica Hagia Sophia of Constantinople (Istanbul, Turkey) showing Emperor Leo VI bowing before Christ, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons).

Sources:

• John Skylitzes. A Synopsis of Byzantine History: 811-1057, translated by John Wortley. Original text c. 11^th or early 12^th century. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Basil-I-Byzantine-emperor 
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leo-VI-Byzantine-emperor  

Is There A Linguistic Legacy From Falconry?

(Illustration from the Falconry Book of Frederick II, c. 1240s, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons and the Vatican Library)

Falconry, a complex form of sport and hunting, is thought to have existed long before the earliest eras of recorded history. The art of falconry, sometimes called hawking, is estimated to have been developed around the third millennium BCE. Some of the earliest depictions of falconers can be found on Hittite stelae dating back to the 13th century BCE, though some people believe falconry may even be depicted in cave paintings from far older times. While falconry seemed to have always been popular among cultures in the Middle East and the central Asian steppes, Europeans were introduced to the sport at a much later time. Centuries of crusades, beginning in 1096 CE, exposed the method of hunting to armies of crusaders and Christian nobles, who brought the sport back home with them to Europe. The United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (thankfully shortened to UNESCO) formally included falconry in their list of Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity on November 16, 2010.

Falconry has declined in popularity since ancient and medieval times, but falconry clubs and organizations still exist, and many countries provide access to falconry licenses. Another interesting legacy left behind by falconry is a list of everyday English sayings that are thought to have been derived from the sport. The phrase, “fed up,” supposedly originated from the behavior of falcons that had eaten and were content on a full stomach—therefore; the lethargic birds disobeyed orders and ignored their falconers. Having somebody “wrapped around your finger” allegedly referenced the act of a falconer wrapping the string or cord attached to a falcon around his finger, thereby giving the hunter more control over the bird. Similarly, having somebody “under your thumb” is thought to reference a falconer keeping the cord of a bird under his thumb, preventing it from flying away. So, even if you have never witnessed or even heard of falconry, the sport has likely had more of an impact on your life than you may know.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Sources:

• https://www.britannica.com/sports/falconry

• http://www.n-a-f-a.com/?page=History

• http://www.n-a-f-a.com/?page=What_is_Falconry

• http://www.pbs.org/falconer/falconry/

• https://www.americanfalconry.com/beginners.html

The Amusing Stalking Horse Method Of Hunting

(Gaston Phoebus, “Livre de Chasse” (1387), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

Hunters will often do odd things to approach their prey—they dress up like foliage, imitate strange animal sounds and climb into precarious tree stands. Yet, one of the most bizarre hunting methods ever used was the stalking horse, a technique definitely practiced in the Middle Ages. The concept, however, probably has been around since the days horses were tamed and first used in hunting. In modern times, however, political scientists and economists have cruelly hijacked the term,  “stalking horse,” for their own theories, but let’s get back to the history of this peculiar hunting technique.

The concept of the stalking horse is simple—wild game is more afraid of humans than horses. Therefore, hunters started to creep up (‘stalking’, if you will) on the unsuspecting animals by keeping the horse between the hunter and the hunted. By using the horse as a screen, the hunter could supposedly get much closer to the prey than if the horse was absent.

Of course, humans love to build and improve; so new versions of the stalking horse were invented. Real horses were interchanged for various horse-shaped decoys and illusions. Some of these decoys were just wooden or canvas screens the hunter could hide behind, but there were also cloth stalking horse suits that the hunter could wear to approach unsuspecting prey, probably with the addition of some added scent to make the stalking horse actually smell like a genuine horse.

Unfortunately, not much information remains about the medieval and ancient uses of the stalking horse, and even fewer sketches or paintings have survived. Nevertheless, a few of the public domain images we managed to find are included below.

  (Image extracted from page 215 of Life on the Upper Thames …, by ROBERTSON, Henry Robert, c. 1875, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

  (Image of a Stalking Horse from Life on the Upper Thames by ROBERTSON, Henry Robert, c. 1875, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

Sources: 

• Going Medieval (Documentary). Written by Mike Loades and directed by David Hutt. History Channel/Lion Television, 2012.  
• https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/stalking%20horse 
• http://www.epsilontheory.com/notes/stalking-horse/ 
• http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2003/09/what_exactly_is_a_stalking_horse.html 
• http://www.thefreedictionary.com/stalking-horse