The Alleged Sobering Powers Of The Amethyst Stone

Amethysts, semiprecious stones from the quartz family, have long been an admired item. Throughout history, the gem’s beautiful violet-purple hues have caught the appraising eye of people in all spectrums of society, from commoners to royalty and religious leaders. The supply and demand for amethysts (at least in the region of the Middle East) is thought to have become notable as far back as the Early Dynastic Period of Egypt (very roughly 3150-2600 BCE), when amethyst consumption began to influence the Egyptian economy, as well at the markets of peoples in contact with the Egyptians.

When the stones found a market in ancient Greece, the gem became associated with one of the more interesting gods of the Greek pantheon. The wine-like purple color of the amethyst eventually became closely associated with the deity known as Dionysos. He was a god of vegetation and fertility, with an emphasis in music, dancing and wine, along with all the emotions that come with overindulgence in his lattermost specialty. In the epic poem, Dionysiaca, the Greek-Egyptian poet, Nonnus, wrote that the earth goddess, Rheia, gave Dionysos an amethyst to counteract the effects of alcohol, a substance that Dionysos is rarely (if ever) portrayed without in ancient artworks.

Interestingly, most etymologists believe that the word, amethyst, was derived from an ancient Greek phrase that loosely translated to “not intoxicated” or “not drunken.” In keeping with the stone’s interesting name, and its association with Dionysus, the god of wine, many ancient people allegedly thought that by wearing a ring or an amulet of amethyst, they could somehow resist the intoxicating powers of their alcoholic beverages. With the accessibility of amethysts in today’s market, this is a theory that can be easily tested by curious readers—with responsible moderation, of course. Cheers!

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Top picture attribution: (Dionysus statue in Rome photographed by Derek Key, decked out (through editing) with public domain amethyst jewelry).

Sources:

• https://www.britannica.com/topic/amethyst
• https://www.gia.edu/amethyst-history-lore 
• https://www.americangemsociety.org/page/februarybirthstone  
• https://www.etymonline.com/word/amethyst
• http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Amethyst 
• http://www.theoi.com/Text/NonnusDionysiaca12.html 
• https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Egypt/The-Predynastic-and-Early-Dynastic-periods#toc22290  

Did A Mysterious Singing Dust Cloud Foretell The Victory Of The Greeks Over The Persians At The 480 BCE Battle Of Salamis?

For most of 480 BCE, the Persians had a definitive advantage in the Greco-Persian Wars. A huge army led by King Xerxes I (r. 486-465 BCE) crossed the Hellespont, known now as the Dardanelles, from Anatolia into Europe and smashed his way into Attica by overcoming the small band of Greek defenders at Thermopylae. The Persian threat was so absolute that powerful cities, such as Athens, decided to evacuate for more defensible ground.

Not all Greeks, however, were fighting against the Persians. In fact, King Xerxes had a very large contingent of Greek mercenaries. Similarly, groups such as the Macedonians aligned themselves with Persia, or at least played both sides for their own advantage. Persia also took in a number of Greek exiles that were forced to leave their homelands.

Herodotus (c. 490-425/420 BCE), an ancient historian from Halicarnassus, wrote about an odd bit of hearsay from two of these exiles that traveled with the Persian army. In book eight of The Histories, Herodotus claimed that a man named Dicaeus (an Athenian exile) and the exiled King Demaratus of Sparta were traveling through the plain of Thria when they saw a huge dust cloud in the distance. The exiles first thought the tempest was raised by the marching feet of tens-of-thousands of men, but as they kept watching, they saw no sign of humanity within the dust. Adding to the amazing sight, Dicaeus swore he could hear religious songs honoring Dionysus coming from the cloud.

When the stunned Athenian finally raised his eyes from the swirling dust and looked in the direction that the cloud had come from, Dicaeus realized that the strange phenomenon must have originated in Eleusis. That discovery was significant; Eleusis was the seat of arguably the most popular Mystery Religion cult of the ancient world—the cult of the goddesses Demeter and Persephone.

Adding all of these ominous signs together, Dicaeus predicted that the final destination of the moving dust cloud would foretell a major change in the Greco-Persian Wars. If the cloud swept toward the Peloponnesus, then the Greeks were as good as doomed. If, however, the musical storm began to flow toward where the Persian fleet was preparing to attack the Greeks at Salamis, then it would be the Persians who would suffer a terrible loss. While Dicaeus was still making his prophecy, the cloud began to creep in the direction of Salamis.

According to folklore and hearsay recorded by Herodotus, Dicaeus and Demaratus swore not to tell the Persians of their impending doom. Just as had been predicted, the Persian fleet was soundly defeated in 480 BCE by the smaller Greek force at Salamis. It was such a disastrous battle that Xerxes decided to leave the administration of the invasion to his generals so that he could personally return home and save himself from further embarrassment.

Although, Dicaeus and Demaratus allegedly never told their story to any Persians, they apparently loved telling the tale to Greeks. Herodotus, himself, either heard the odd story from the mouth of Dicaeus, or from a second-hand account told by someone who had come in contact with one of the exiles. Of course, this bizarre story should be treated as a tall tale, but nevertheless, it is a fun tidbit of 5th-century BCE storytelling.

Written by C. Keith Hansley

Top picture attribution: (Cropped and edited dust/sand  cloud made by the United States 3rd Marine Aircraft Wing, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons).

Sources:

• From The Histories by Herodotus (Book VIII), translated by Aubrey De Sélincourt and revised by John Marincola (Penguin Classics, 2002). 

The Lethal Temple Of Death In Ancient Hierapolis

King Eumenes II of Pergamum is thought to have founded the city of Hierapolis (modern Pamukkale) around 190 BCE in the region of ancient Phrygia, located in western Anatolia. Built around beautiful hot springs, the city would serve both as a luxurious spa and a religious center. Along with public baths, a gymnasium and the all important community agora, the city of Hieropolis also had a unique temple, constructed atop a cave or crevice in the earth, which was dedicated to the god of the underworld.

The temple of Hades in Hierapolis, like several other ancient Greek temples (especially the ones that housed oracles), was built atop multiple fault lines that allowed natural gasses to permeate into the structure. Yet, while other temples had fumes that caused delirium or hallucinations, the noxious smog in the temple at Hierapolis caused extreme illness and death. The temple was so dangerous that it was considered a portal to the domain of Hades. When the Romans expanded their empire over the region, they were also impressed with the temple and confirmed that it was a Ploutonion, a temple of their god of the dead, Pluto.

The Ploutonion of Hierapolis was an awesome sight. It was said to have included a tiered theater, and it hosted many sacrifices, where live offerings were carried into the temple to die of the poisonous fumes. One of the more striking accounts of the Ploutonion was written by the geographer and historian, Strabo (c. 64 BCE – 21 CE), who wrote that the temple featured a dark pathway that led under the ground, which was heavily fogged over with lethal vapor. He witnessed that any animals, from small birds to beasts as large as bulls, all quickly died when they were brought down into the temple’s noxious depths.

The Ploutonion remained open until the rise of Christianity in the Roman Empire, when its entrance was eventually sealed and forgotten. The city remained populated well into the Byzantine Era, until it was abandoned around the 14th century.

The ancient city was rediscovered in the 19th century, when archaeologists began to excavate the region. The immense historical and cultural value of the site was internationally recognized in 1988, when Hierapolis was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Modern archeologists have found that potent carbon dioxide gasses, to this day, infest the temple and make the ruins deadly—several curious birds died while archeologists excavated the Ploutonion. It is believed that the priests who carried out the sacrifices in the temple of the dead simply held their breath to safely enter and exit the Ploutonion, as they carried out their religious duties.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Top picture attribution: (Theater of Hierapolis, [Public Domain] via pixabay.com).

Sources:

• http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/04/130414-hell-underworld-archaeology-mount-olympus--greece/  
• https://www.britannica.com/place/Hierapolis-ancient-Phrygian-city 
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Strabo  
• http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/485 
• http://metro.co.uk/2013/04/04/ancient-gates-of-hell-found-in-pamukkale-turkey-3582937/ 

The Humorous Incense Incident Between Alexander The Great And His Old Mentor

(Alexander the Great (by Giuseppe Cades (1750–1799)) With Incense)

The most famous tutor of Alexander is obviously Aristotle, the brilliant polymath who studied and wrote about almost everything he had access to in ancient Greece. Yet, before the arrival of Aristotle, Alexander had other tutors. In particular, the most influential of these early instructors were Leonidas and Lysimachus. These two oversaw Alexander’s early physical training and war studies. Of these two men, the young prince developed an especially close bond with Leonidas, a relative of Alexander’s mother, Olympias, from Epirus.

Though Alexander and Leonidas had mutual respect and love, their relationship was not always warm and smooth. Leonidas wanted Alexander to grow up to be a strong, disciplined ruler, and as such, his style of mentoring and tutoring was ruthless. He apparently had a fondness for sending Alexander, and his young companions, on long, arduous marches. Leonidas also kept his ever-watchful eyes scouring for any treats that may have been hidden for Alexander by friends or family. Nevertheless, despite all the frustration that Leonidas assuredly caused Alexander, the young prince reportedly still loved the man like a father.

Years later, when Alexander had transformed the Kingdom of Macedonia into an empire spanning several continents, he still vividly remembered one particular critique given by his old mentor, Leonidas. The memory was of an event that occurred when Alexander was at some shrine or other with Leonidas to give a gift of incense to a god. Alexander, who was a very religious man, scooped up as much incense as he could in his hands and burnt it on the alter. The gruff mentor, Leonidas, immediately chastised Alexander for being wasteful and irresponsible with such an expensive luxury resource.

Alexander remembered this old chastisement even as he was tapping into the spice markets of Asia. During one of these times when he was pondering that memory, a humorous idea immediately struck the king—he had a huge shipment of frankincense and myrrh sent home to his aging mentor, Leonidas, with a letter advising the man to stop being so stingy in his worship.

Written by C. Keith Hansley

Sources:

• Alexander the Great by Philip Freeman. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 2011.  
• Alexander the Great: The Story of an Ancient Life by Thomas R. Martin and Christopher W. Blackwell. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012.

The Most Popular Of The Ancient Mystery Religion Cults—Demeter and Kore in Eleusis

(Varrese Painting of Demeter, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

The mystery religions of the ancient world are a fascinating subject. While most worship in public temples at the time focused more on action than emotion, any ancient Greeks and Romans who wanted a more personal relationship with a god could find a home in the various mystery religions scattered throughout the ancient world. Perhaps the most popular of these mystery religions was dedicated to the goddesses, Demeter and Kore (associated with Persephone), located at Eleusis.

Fairly close to Athens, in the region of Attica, Greece, the community of Eleusis set up a cult to the earth goddesses, Demeter and Kore, in support of the local agriculture. One of the cult’s early functions was to ensure their patron goddesses’ favor for the health of the grain they sowed around September and October. The agricultural cult in Eleusis was founded and controlled by the Eleusinian people until Athens usurped control of the cult around 600 BCE.

As the name ‘mystery religion’ suggests, much of what happened in the cult of Demeter and Kore at Eleusis remains a mystery, for what occurred in the cult was a guarded secret. It is known that they, at least, celebrated two events—the lesser and greater mysteries. The lesser mysteries are thought to have been a preparatory celebration that occurred near Athens around February at a place called Agrai. The much more elaborate greater mysteries occurred during September and October, when the sacred items held by the cult of Demeter and Kore were transported from Eleusis to a temple in Athens. Once they were in the great city, eager initiates into the mysteries of Eleusis were instructed to bathe in seawater. Next, they would sacrifice a pig in honor of their patron goddesses. After the celebrations and ceremonies of the greater mysteries were complete, the cult members and initiates packed up the sacred items of their goddesses and returned to Eleusis, singing and dancing as they went.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Source:

• The Ancient Mysteries: A Sourcebook of Sacred Texts by Marvin W. Meyer. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1987.

The Ancient Greek God Hephaestus Had A Really Rough Childhood

(Vulcan in his Forge, by Pompeo Batoni (1708–1787), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

According to the Homeric version of the birth of Hephaestus, the newborn god was in no way given a warm and loving reception by his mother, Hera. In Homer’s account, Hephaestus was born with weak and crippled legs. Hera, the queen of the Olympic gods, despised her son because of his imperfections and immediately plotted to dispose of him. With her mind set on her son’s destruction, Hera dragged Hephaestus to the edge of Mount Olympus and threw him from the summit.

After a long descent, Hephaestus splashed into the sea and sank into its dark, watery depths. Fortunately for the newborn god, two sea-goddesses found Hephaestus abandoned in the ocean. Their names were Thetis (a sea nymph, and future mother of Achilles) and Eurynome (a titan who lived in the ocean).

Thetis and Eurynome rescued Hephaestus and brought him back to a cave where they sheltered and provided for the young god for nine years. During the time he was cared for by the sea-goddesses, Hephaestus used his unmatched skill in metalworking to make all sorts of trinkets and jewelry for the two kind goddesses.

After the nine years came to an end, Hephaestus left the cave and returned to Olympus. He eventually made golden supports to help himself walk, and even constructed golden women to help him in his forge. Once Hephaestus returned to Olympus, he took his place as the blacksmith of the Greek gods.

Source:

• The Iliad by Homer, translated by E. V. Rieu and edited by Peter Jones. New York: Penguin Books, 2014.  
• http://www.greekmythology.com/Olympians/Hephaestus/hephaestus.html
• http://www.theoi.com/Olympios/Hephaistos.html  

Alexander the Great Had Great Mythological Ancestry

(Alexander the Great founding Alexandria, Egypt, by Placido Costanzi (Italian, 1702-1759), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

Rulers have claimed political authority from divine lineage throughout the history of many cultures from all over the world. Alexander the Great (c. 356- 323 BCE) was no exception—his family claimed some of the greatest figures in Greek mythology as their ancestors.

The marriage between King Philip II of Macedon and Olympias from Epirus merged two families with formidable mythological ties. On his mother’s side of the family, Alexander the Great claimed Achilles as his ancestor. From Achilles, Alexander could argue that he was also related to Thetis (Achilles’ mother), an important sea-nymph who was well respected by Zeus, the leader of the Greek gods.

Alexander’s father, Phillip II, had an even more impressive ancestral claim. From his father’s side of the family, Alexander could claim he was descended from Heracles (also spelled Hercules). Through Heracles’ parentage, Alexander was able to claim he was related to almighty Zeus.

If being related to Achilles, Heracles, Zeus and Thetis was not enough, Alexander’s mother, Olympias, also believed that Alexander was not fathered by Phillip II, but by a god disguised as the Macedonian king. Alexander took his mother’s belief seriously and as his accomplishments began to accumulate without precedent, he began to publicly hint that he was a son of Zeus. Around 326 BCE, the year he defeated King Porus of India, Alexander had coins (or medallions) minted that depicted himself wielding lightning.

  (Victory coin minted by Alexander the Great, c. 326 BCE, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Source:

• Alexander the Great: The Story Of An Ancient Life, by Thomas R. Martin and Christopher W. Blackwell. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012.

 

The Sibylline Books Are One Of The Most Important Topics of Roman History, But Remain One Of Rome’s More Obscure Mysteries

(Woodcut of Sibyl Almathea from a German translation by Heinrich Steinhöwel of Giovanni Boccaccio, c. 1474,via Creative Commons 2.0 (CC 2.0)

Thankfully for us, ancient Romans were avid writers. Poets wrote of Roman mythology and legends. Historians detailed the events of the Roman Republic, the empire and the numerous emperors. Julius Caesar wrote an elaborate autobiography. Emperor Marcus Aurelius left us his book of insightful meditations, and Emperor Julian the Apostate published his learned attacks against Christianity in favor of the traditional gods of Rome. Yet, with all of the abundant information available about the Roman Empire, one subject of immense importance remains infuriatingly mysterious—the Sibylline Books.

The Sibylline Books were a well-guarded collection of cryptic and poetic prophetic riddles, in which the Romans would search for answers in times of crisis. One of the known examples of when the Sibylline Books were consulted was when Italy was ravaged by the military genius, Hannibal of Carthage, during the Second Punic War. The Roman Republic surveyed the Sibylline Books and deduced that their fortunes would change if they invited a goddess from Phrygia into the Roman pantheon of gods. They took the prophecy to heart and brought the cult of Cybele, the Magna Mater (Great Mother), into Rome with great honors around 204 BCE.

That, however, is one of the few facts we know about the Sibylline Books.  Along with the Punic Wars story, scholars have very loosely deduced that one to twelve Sibyls, or prophetesses, wrote the Sibylline Books. Only one particular Sibyl can be considered historical-ish. A prophetess only known as the Cumaean Sibyl (sometimes named Almalthea) reportedly sold a collection of prophetic books to King Tarquinius Superbus (c. 6^th century BCE), the last king of the Romans. She tried to sell nine books of prophecy to the Roman King, but when he refused to pay her price, she burned six books before the king was convinced to buy remaining three (for the price of all nine). The Cumaean Sibyl is even thought to be the sibyl featured in Virgil’s epic poem, The Aeneid.

Regardless of where the Sibylline Books came from, they stayed safe in their guarded temple until they were required in times of crisis. They reportedly were heavily damaged by fire, or completely destroyed, in 83 BCE. That was the tumultuous year when the dictator, Sulla, took Rome by force for a second time in his life, this time against a man named Cinna (who was Julius Caesar’s father-in-law). Nevertheless, it is thought that the Sibylline Books were repaired, or replaced, and lasted until the 5^th century CE. What remained of the Sibylline Books, however, is thought to have been completely destroyed by General Flavius Stilicho around the year 407, when he seized or destroyed pagan objects and properties in an attempt to gain new, anti-pagan, allies—it did not work, for he was assassinated a year later.

Despite this, another collection of ‘prophesies’ called the Sibylline Oracles has managed to survive until the present day. These, however, are not the original Books, but are forgeries of the originals, combined with heavy doses of history, mythology and even Jewish and Christian religious teachings. These hoax Sibylline works have been loosely dated to between the 2^nd and 6^th centuries CE.

To close this on a fun note, here is a vivid description of a Sibyl in a god-inspired craze from Virgil’s Aeneid:

“But the Sibyl, still not broken in by Apollo, storms

with a wild fury through her cave. And the more she tries

to pitch the great god off her breast, the more his bridle

exhausts her raving lips, overwhelming her untamed heart,

bending her to his will. Now the hundred immense

mouths of the house swing open, all on their own,

and bear the Sibyl’s answers through the air.”

• From The Aeneid by Virgil (Book Six), translated by Robert Fagles (Penguin Classics edition)

Written by C. Keith Hansley

Sources:

• The Aeneid by Virgil, translated by Robert Fagles. New York: Penguin Books, 2006.  
• http://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/ancient-history-late-roman-and-byzantine-biographies/flavius-stilicho 
• http://www.mythencyclopedia.com/Sa-Sp/Sibyls.html 
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sibyl-Greek-legendary-figure 
• http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/sib/ 
• http://www.novaroma.org/nr/Sibylline_Books  

Virgil’s Aeneid Contained Some Peculiar Nautical Sea Nymphs

(THE NYMPH ROSE FROM THE SEA AND BORE THE VEIL AWAY, by William Heath Robinson (1872-1944), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

Ancient origin myths and creation stories can be really strange. So, too, are many of the creatures and monsters found in mythology weird and bizarre. Therefore, it is not surprise that the origin stories of some mythological beings are especially odd.

A particular band of sea nymphs found in the poetic verse of The Aeneid by Virgil (70-19 BCE) perfectly illustrates how peculiarly some mythological entities were born. The epic poem about Aeneas follows a band of Trojan refugees journeying to make a new life in Italy, only to be constantly harrassed by the goddess Juno and the various peoples (Carthaginians and native Italians) she riled up against the homeless wanderers. Just like in The Illiad and The Odyssey, the gods choose sides and intervene on multiple occasions to help, or hinder, the characters of the story.

One of the stranger supernatural events of The Aeneid, however, is the birth of a group of sea nymphs. These nymphs were not brought about by the promiscuity of the gods, or curses or blessings placed on humans, as many other creatures of myth came into being. No, these particular nymphs from The Aeneid actually originated as the ships used by Aeneas and his Trojan companions. When the Trojan refugees and the Italian Latins mobilized their forces to make war against each other, the ships of the Trojans broke their mooring lines, transformed into nymphs and dove into the ocean. This is the passage that describes the transformation of ships into sea nymphs:

“And all at once,

each vessel snapping her cables free of the bank,

they dive like dolphins, plunging headlong beaks

to the bottom’s depths, then up they surface,

turned into lovely virgins—wondrous omen—

each a sea-nymph sweeping out to sea.”

• From The Aeneid by Virgil (Book Nine), translated by Robert Fagles (Penguin Classics edition), 2010.

The nymphs return to aid the Trojans later, where they give Aeneas an account of their birth:

“A troop of his comrades comes to meet him,

halfway home, the nymphs that kindly Cybebe told

to rule the sea in power, changing the ships

to sea-nymphs swimming abreast, cutting the waves,

as many as all the bronze prows berthed at anchor once.

They know their king far off, circling, dancing round him

and one, most eloquent of them all, Cymodocea swims in

on his wake and grips his stern with her right hand,

arching her back above the swells as her left hand

rows the silent waves, and she calls out to Aeneas,

lost to it all: “Awake Aeneas, son of the gods?

Wake up! Fling your sheets to the winds, sail free!

Here we are, the pines from the sacred ridge of Ida,

When traitorous Turnus forced us headlong on

with sword and torch, we burst your mooring lines,

we had no choice, and now we scour the seas

to find our captain. The Great Mother pitied us,

changed our shape, she made us goddesses, yes,

And so we pass our lives beneath the waves.”

• From The Aeneid by Virgil (Book Ten), translated by Robert Fagles (Penguin Classics edition), 2010.

Written by C. Keith Hansley 

The Groundbreaking Akkadian Priestess Enheduanna Is Mankind’s Oldest Known Author To Have Signed Her Work

She also may be the mother of hymns, poetry and verse, and likely influenced Homer and the authors of the holy texts of Abrahamic religions

(Calcite disc of Enheduanna discovered by Sir Leonard Wooley in 1927 depicting Enheduanna and her attendants, photographed by Mefman00 and cropped, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

Enheduanna was born in Akkad (thought to be within modern Iraq), the capital city of the Akkadian Empire, which may be the world’s first multi-ethnic empire. While dating the lives of people from earth’s most ancient civilizations is often unreliable, the scholars seem to be comfortable placing Enheduanna’s life between 2285 and 2250 BCE. Enheduanna was an incredibly bright princess, was the daughter of the empire’s equally brilliant king, Sargon I of Akkad (2334-2279 BCE), also known as Sargon the Great.

Sargon the Great recognized the competence and wisdom in his daughter, and decided to use Enheduanna to his own advantage. The king promoted her to be the high priestess at the temples of Uruk and Ur. Her position as high priestess of the moon god, Nanna (also known as Sin or Suen), in the city of Ur, was by far the highest religious office of her day. As high priestess, Enheduanna ruled effectively, cultivating support for her father and tying the Akkadian and Sumerian religions and cultures together. She also survived a period of exile, when a rebel forcibly removed her from her priesthood. Her nephew, to the priestess' relief, quickly crushed the rebellion and restored her to power. Enheduanna did not, however, spend her more than forty years as high priestess solely administrating—she managed to find time to write.

From what archeologists have discovered, Enheduanna wrote poems, hymns and prayers. Her writings are the oldest so far discovered to have been signed and claimed by a specific author. Enheduanna, as far as we know, also was the first person in history to use the first-person style of writing, describing her hopes, wishes and emotions from her own point of view in her poems and prayers. Though Enheduanna was a priestess of the moon god, Nanna, most of her works are devoted to Inanna, a Mesopotamian goddess of love that later cultures would compare to Ishtar and Aphrodite. Many of the priestess’ hymns have been recovered and translated including  “The Exhaltation of Inanna” (Nin-me-sara), “Inanna and Ebih” (In-nin me-hus-a) and “Lady of the Great Heart,” also known as Hymn to Inanna.

Enheduanna has much more of a legacy than being the oldest known author to claim her work with a signature. The relationship between herself, and her father, King Sargon the Great, began a precedent of royal princesses being placed as high priestesses in Mesopotamia. More importantly, Enheduanna’s hymns became widely used to train Mesopotamian scribes in proper, and beautiful, writing. Her hymns and poems, however, did not only influence Mesopotamia. Many think that Enheduanna’s work served as a major stylistic and structural inspiration for other literary behemoths such as Homer in Greece and the early biblical writers who wrote the oldest texts at the core of the Abrahamic religions. 

Written by C. Keith Hansley

Sources: 

• http://www.ancient.eu/Enheduanna/ 
• https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Enheduanna 
• http://www.ancient.eu/akkad/