The Christian New Testament Was Under Construction For A Very Long Time After The Death Of Jesus

(St Paul writing his epistles, by Valentin de Boulogne (1591–1632), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

The first generation of Christians was sluggish to write down the life, death and teachings of Jesus. For the most part, the first faithful followers believed Jesus’ second coming would likely occur in their lifetime. So, understandably, preserving their savior’s words in writing was not their first priority. As the years continued to roll on, however, Christians finally began to write about their religion. Nevertheless, by the time the bulk of the New Testament was being written, multiple decades had elapsed since the time of the crucifixion and many of Jesus’ apostles had also passed away.

The apostle, Paul, formerly Saul of Tarsus, wrote the earliest texts of the New Testament. His letters to the numerous local churches he had a hand in creating were written in the decades preceding his death—as Paul (along with the apostles Peter and James) died in the 60s CE, it is safe to assume that the letters of Paul were written prior to, or during, that decade. Of the canonical gospels of the New Testament, the Gospel of Mark is the oldest—it is thought to have been written around 70 CE. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke came next, both thought to have been written in the 80s CE. The last of the gospels was the Gospel of John, which was written in the 90s CE, the decade in which John the Evangelist is believed to have died.

Though most of the books and letters contained in the New Testament are thought to have been written in the 1st century CE, it took much longer for the early church fathers to decide what should be included and excluded in the Bible. As far as historians and archeologists know, it took until the 4th century CE for the ancient Catholic Church to decide on a final list of New Testament books. In 367 CE, Bishop Athanasius of Alexandria wrote the oldest known list (in his Easter Letter) to contain the twenty-seven books eventually recognized by the ancient Catholic Church to be the canonical books of the New Testament.

Written by C. Keith Hansley

Source:

• Early Christianity: A Brief History by Joseph H. Lynch. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010. 

The Massive Tet Offensive Changed The Course Of The Vietnam War

(Map showing some of the locations attacked during the Tet Offensive, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

In the Vietnam War, the North Vietnamese and the United States were fighting a war of attrition—a war that the U. S. should have theoretically won handily. Yet, theories often overlook the vital human essences of emotion and will. To break the United States’ will to fight, the North Vietnamese had to do something ambitious and terrifying. Most importantly, it needed to be something with good optics that would be broadcast on air and in print. The North Vietnamese and their allies in the south accomplished this in their Tet Offensive of 1968, perhaps the single most important step that the communists took to eventually break the American spirit.

The Tet Offensive was massive in scope. On January 30, 1968, simultaneous attacks were made on villages, cities and capitals all the way from the Demilitarized Zone in the north, to the southernmost region of South Vietnam. In total, around 36 provincial capitals were struck, along with 46 district capitals, 50 small villages, and 5 of the most major cities of South Vietnam. The surprise attack achieved confusion and chaos, and optically, the Tet Offensive made civilians in the United States believe that the Vietnam War was out of control.

In actuality, that psychological effect was the only lasting gain made by the North Vietnamese in the Tet Offensive. Though the Tet Offensive was chaotic and provided great press for the communists, the attack was hardly a practical success. The North Vietnamese bungled their coordination during the Tet Offensive—some groups attacked too early, and other were slow to ride the momentum of success. The disorganization of the offensive allowed the U.S. and the South Vietnamese forces to deflect most of the attack in only a few days. The Tet Offensive was a charge of desperation carried out by a force clinging to a dwindling tether of hope. Nevertheless, that desperate charge was vital for the North Vietnamese.

Even though the ground forces of the United States and South Vietnam recovered quickly from the Tet Offensive, the heart of the U.S.—the civilians at home—was irreparably demoralized by the attack. The Tet Offensive fueled the growing public protests against the war and pressure continued to rise until the United States withdrew from Vietnam in 1973.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Source:

• Warfare in the Western World: Military Operations Since 1871 by Robert A. Doughty and Ira D. Gruber et al. Massachusetts: D. C. Heath and Company, 1996. 

Julius Caesar Had A Rebel Leader Of Gaul Clubbed To Death In Front Of His Comrades

(Bust of Julius Caesar, remastered photograph from Alfred von Domaszewski Geschichte der Romischen Kaiser Verlag von Quelle & Meyer in Leipzig 1914, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

As ancient Roman military leaders go, Julius Caesar was not as bloodthirsty as his legacy makes him out to be. In general, Caesar was one of the more diplomatic and negotiable Roman military leaders of his time. If a foreign ruler behaved as an ally, Caesar would reciprocate the relationship. Yet, that was the catch—as soon as a person crossed that thin line between friend and foe, the amicable, deal-making general immediately transformed into the lightning quick, ruthless Julius Caesar of legend.

In 53 BCE, a rebel leader named Acco was captured by the Romans. Acco, leading the forces of the Senones and Carnutes in Gaul, was only one commander of a much larger wave of rebelling tribes led by a man named Ambiorix, a former ally of the Romans. Acco’s forces, however, were surprised and outmaneuvered by Julius Caesar’s characteristic swiftness, and they surrendered to the Romans. Caesar spared the homelands of the Senones and Carnutes, but he took Acco and other leaders prisoner.

Unfortunately for Acco, Julius Caesar had lost his patience with the Gauls and Germans who were threatening and killing his men. The year 53 BCE had been a rough one—the main rebel force of Ambiorix destroyed a Roman fortress commanded by two officers named Sabinus and Cotta. From there, the rebels sieged another fort led by Quintus Cicero, but Caesar arrived and saved these men from an almost certain death. It was in this atmosphere of betrayal and anger that Acco found himself in the clutches of Julius Caesar.

As a result of their quick surrender, the Sesones and Carnutes who had been led by Acco were given mercy. Other tribes of Gaul, as well as Germans who had given the rebels aid, were hunted down by Caesar’s legions and defeated in battle. The degree to which their lands were pillaged and their people massacred depended on how much their particular tribe had participated in the attacks on Roman troops. Though the Sesones and Carnutes were spared the reprisals mentioned above, Acco, himself, was a different matter.

After Caesar finished his punitive campaign in 53 BCE, he called for all the leaders of Gaul to witness a tribunal in which many of the rebel leaders would be judged. Many of those Gauls would likely never forget what they saw. Caesar condemned Acco to death by one of the Roman Legion’s iconic methods of execution—the fustuarium. The rebel leader, Acco, was publicly beaten to death with clubs in front of the other prominent Gauls present at the tribunal.

Caesar probably hoped the execution of Acco would frighten the leaders of Gaul into submission, but it is more likely that the tribunal only made the Gauls more disgruntled. Soon, Gaul would rise up in another huge wave of rebellion, this time led by Vercingetorix.

Written by C. Keith Hansley

Sources:

• Julius Caesar by Philip Freeman. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 2008.  
• http://militaryhistorynow.com/2012/06/29/this-is-gonna-hurt-military-punishment-throughout-the-ages/

Bearded Women Were Harbingers Of Danger Sent By The Greek Gods?

(The statue of Pallas Athena (modified with a beard) in front of Parliament Building, Vienna, Austria, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

In the ancient Anatolian region of Caria, the people of Pedasus had an interesting and unique way of surviving the turbulent times of history. With the help of the priestesses of the local temple of Athene (or Athena), Pedasus could often predict when danger was eminent.

The ancient Greek historian, Herodotus, briefly described the peculiar (most likely folkloric) defense mechanism that was reportedly used by Pedasus—bearded ladies. More accurately, holy bearded ladies. Herodotus wrote that when trouble was approaching, the priestess of Athene in Pedasus would grow a long beard. Whenever the people of Pedasus saw that their priestess was bearded, they would send out messages of warning to their neighbors and allies to prepare for an incoming threat. Though Herodotus, himself, sounded a bit skeptical of the bearded priestesses, he noted in The Histories that Pedasus was supposedly warned of danger in this fashion in at least three instances.

For those wishing to hear Herodotus' words on this matter, his description was as follows: "Inland, east of Halicarnassus, there were the men of Pedasus. These people used to get warning of any impending disaster to them and their neighbors by the priestess of Athene growing a long beard, a thing which has actually happened on three occasions" (The Histories, Book 1, section 175).

Written by C. Keith Hansley

Source:

• The Histories by Herodotus translated by Aubrey de Sélincourt and revised by John Marincola. New York: Penguin Classics, 2002. 

The Humorous Incense Incident Between Alexander The Great And His Old Mentor

(Alexander the Great (by Giuseppe Cades (1750–1799)) With Incense)

The most famous tutor of Alexander is obviously Aristotle, the brilliant polymath who studied and wrote about almost everything he had access to in ancient Greece. Yet, before the arrival of Aristotle, Alexander had other tutors. In particular, the most influential of these early instructors were Leonidas and Lysimachus. These two oversaw Alexander’s early physical training and war studies. Of these two men, the young prince developed an especially close bond with Leonidas, a relative of Alexander’s mother, Olympias, from Epirus.

Though Alexander and Leonidas had mutual respect and love, their relationship was not always warm and smooth. Leonidas wanted Alexander to grow up to be a strong, disciplined ruler, and as such, his style of mentoring and tutoring was ruthless. He apparently had a fondness for sending Alexander, and his young companions, on long, arduous marches. Leonidas also kept his ever-watchful eyes scouring for any treats that may have been hidden for Alexander by friends or family. Nevertheless, despite all the frustration that Leonidas assuredly caused Alexander, the young prince reportedly still loved the man like a father.

Years later, when Alexander had transformed the Kingdom of Macedonia into an empire spanning several continents, he still vividly remembered one particular critique given by his old mentor, Leonidas. The memory was of an event that occurred when Alexander was at some shrine or other with Leonidas to give a gift of incense to a god. Alexander, who was a very religious man, scooped up as much incense as he could in his hands and burnt it on the alter. The gruff mentor, Leonidas, immediately chastised Alexander for being wasteful and irresponsible with such an expensive luxury resource.

Alexander remembered this old chastisement even as he was tapping into the spice markets of Asia. During one of these times when he was pondering that memory, a humorous idea immediately struck the king—he had a huge shipment of frankincense and myrrh sent home to his aging mentor, Leonidas, with a letter advising the man to stop being so stingy in his worship.

Written by C. Keith Hansley

Sources:

• Alexander the Great by Philip Freeman. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 2011.  
• Alexander the Great: The Story of an Ancient Life by Thomas R. Martin and Christopher W. Blackwell. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012.

The Greek Historian Herodotus Recorded A Truly Horrifying Tale Surrounding The Birth Of The Persian, Cyrus The Great

(The Childhood of King Cyrus of Persia, by Sebastiano Ricci (1659–1734), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

The account as told by Herodotus about the birth of Cyrus the Great began like the stories of many great ancients—with prophecies and cryptic dreams that signaled the birth of a great man. Events began to fall in place when the king of the Medes, who was named Astyages, had a strange dream about his daughter. In one dream, she urinated on all of Asia, and in another dream, vines spread from her womb throughout the distant lands. King Astyages went to his priests, the Magi, who interpreted the dreams to mean that the king’s grandson, Cyrus, would usurp the throne and become a great conqueror. Do note that, besides the existence of King Astyages of Medes and Cyrus the Great and the conquest of the former by the latter, the following story is almost certainly exaggerated folklore that Herodotus picked up in his research. Nevertheless, enjoy, if you can, this truly gruesome story.

When King Astyages heard the interpretation of the Magi, he became afraid of his grandson. The king summoned his trusted steward, Harpagus, who was a member of his family, and entrusted him with the task of making young Cyrus disappear. Harpagus disliked the idea of murdering an infant with his own hands, so he gave the child to a herdsman who was supposed to abandon Cyrus in the wilderness to die. As it happened, however, the herdsman’s wife had just given birth to a baby who died before or during childbirth. In their grief, the herdsman and his wife secretly adopted Cyrus and laid the body of their own deceased son in the wilderness to satisfy Harpagus.

As Cyrus grew, his natural leadership skills became prominent—when the children of the village were playing, Cyrus was often appointed as their king. He was even bold enough to order around the sons of noblemen during their games. The boy developed such poise and presence that King Astyages eventually recognized Cyrus as his supposedly dead grandson. For reassurance, the king returned to the Magi and asked for advice, now that he knew his grandson survived. The Magi said this time that Cyrus had only been named as a king during childhood games, and that his kingship would likely remain restricted to youthful playing. Relieved, King Astyages called together a banquet to celebrate the life of his grandson, Cyrus. It would be an unforgettable feast, especially for Harpagus, who had failed to fulfill the king’s demand.

The guests all arrived for the king’s banquet and a great abundance of food and drink was carried out to sate their hunger. Everyone present at the feast was served mutton of the finest quality, except for Harpagus, who was given a dish chosen for him specifically by the king. Harpagus must have found the meal satisfactory, for he ate until he was full. During the feast, however, Harpagus must have been worried about his son—his young boy was supposed to be at the banquet. In fact, his son was sent to the palace early that day. Perhaps, the king had the boy doing some chore or other? Despite his worry, Harpagus finished his meal.

When everyone had eaten to the point of contentment, the king brought out a covered tray to offer Harpagus seconds. The king’s steward declined, saying he wanted no more to eat, but the king insisted that Harpagus lift the lid of the tray. When Harpagus did as he was told, to his horror, he found the head, feet and hands of his young son on the platter. Harpagus’ son had been present for the feast, after all—his flesh had been served on the plate of his father.

Surprisingly, Harpagus took in the horrific scene with grace and poise, simply gathering up what left of his son so he could bring him home and put him to rest. Yet, Harpagus got his revenge. When Cyrus was exiled by his grandfather to Persia, the steward kept in touch. Herodotus wrote that Harpagus encouraged Cyrus to usurp power from King Astyages, and convinced a large faction of Medians to defect to Cyrus’ side, thereby ending the reign of the man who had murdered his son.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Source:

• The Histories by Herodotus, translated by Aubrey de Sélincourt and revised by John Marincola. New York: Penguin Classics, 2002.

Useless Information About ‘The Iliad’ That You May Find Interesting

 (Achilles, by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1696-1770), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

 

An earlier installment of this ‘Did You Know?’ series mentioned that there are 666 speeches given by characters in Homer’s, The Iliad. Yet, as television salesmen would say, ‘but wait, there’s more.’ Here are a few more facts and statistics about The Iliad that will probably not cause any enlightenment whatsoever, but, nonetheless, should be entertaining.

Useless fact cluster number one:

•   The Iliad contains over 300 similes.
• There are so many similes in the epic poem that they take up around 1,100 lines of poetry. 
• The similes make up around 7% of The Iliad.  

Now we move on to war. As The Iliad is set during the Trojan War, it is not surprising that battles and bloodshed take a primary role in Homer’s multi-thousand year old epic poem. 

•   In all, around 5,500 lines of poetry are dedicated to describing war and armed conflict in The Iliad.
• There are around 300 specific armed encounters—duels, skirmishes or battles—that occur during the poem. 
• In these numerous bloody scenes, Homer mentions the deaths of around 342 people. 
• The wide majority of these are Trojans, with a grand total of 281 specifically mentioned deaths. 
• Around 170 of these Trojans were given unique names by Homer.   

Written by C. Keith Hansley

Source:

• The Iliad by Homer, translated by E. V. Rieu and edited/introduced by Peter Jones. New York: Penguin Classics, 2014.