The First Reported Contact Between Britain and Vikings

The anonymous author of the early sections of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was the first known source to write about a Viking raid in Britain. In the entry for the Anglo-Saxon year 787 (often equated by modern historians to year 789 CE), it was reported that three ships of “Northmen” arrived near the Kingdom of Wessex from the so-called “Hæretha Lands,” or the land of robbers. Some believe the description of the Northmen’s homeland refers to Hordaland, Norway, while other think it refers to Denmark. While it is plausible that these or other Vikings had attacked different regions during the time it took for the three northern longships to make their way toward Wessex, the chronicler of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle believed that the vessels off the coast of Wessex were “the first ships of Danish men that sought the land of the English race” (ASC 787 [789]).

At the time, King Beorhtric ruled Wessex and one of his reeves (basically a sheriff) discovered the northern strangers on the coast. As the Kingdom of Wessex had reportedly had no contact with Vikings before, the reeve did not know what to expect from the foreigners. Therefore, the dutiful official rode down to the beach to meet with the sailors, likely thinking them to be merchants or diplomats. He reportedly planned to guide the Vikings to meet with King Beorhtric, but the poor reeve quickly discovered that the Northmen had not come to Wessex for diplomacy. Instead of friendly discourse, the Vikings killed the reeve and presumably raided some nearby villages before disappearing back into the sea.

After the death of the reeve, no more Viking attacks were reported for several years. During that span of time, perhaps the Anglo-Saxons believed the reeve’s death was an accident or a product of failed diplomacy. Yet, word finally began to spread around Christendom about the nature of the Vikings after 793—in that year, Vikings raided the monastery of Lindisfarne in Northumbria, looting the sanctuary and killing some of the monks. While the death of the reeve only caused some grumbling in Wessex, the raid on Lindisfarne horrified many throughout Europe. It was about time they worried, for the raids would only get worse in the years to come.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Picture Attribution: (Painting of a Viking Raid by Ferdinand Leeke  (1859–1937), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons).

Sources:

• Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in The Viking Age: A Reader, edited by Angus A. Somerville and R. Andrew McDonald. Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 2010.
• The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle translated by Benjamin Thorpe in 1861 and republished by Cambridge University Press, 2012. 
• http://avalon.law.yale.edu/medieval/ang08.asp#b30  

Medieval Archery-Enhancing Witchcraft

Most of the spells and witchcraft rituals mentioned in the 15th-century witch-hunting manual, The Malleus Maleficarum, consisted of damaging curses and ceremonies to augment weather. Yet, the book also claimed there were types of witchcraft that could be utilized by warriors in battle. In particular, magic-wielding archers apparently had access to a demonic ritual that could make every arrow meet its mark.

The ritual supposedly used by these diabolical archers can be found in part 2, question 2, chapter 16 of The Malleus Maleficarum. It was quite a simple procedure—the archer only needed to do some simple target practice. Yet, instead of shooting at normal archery targets, the ritual called for a crucifix to be set up at the end of the range. With the cross in place, the skilled wizard-archer needed only to successfully hit the crucifix with an arrow to produce a supernatural projectile.

After hitting the crucifix with a number of arrows, and possibly reciting some sacrilegious statement, the archer could finish the ritual by simply pulling the arrows out of the crucifix and sticking them back into his quiver. If the arrows still happened to not be magical at this point, there were apparently other criteria that less powerful wizards needed to meet, such as doing the ritual on Good Friday or giving not only their soul, but also their body, to the Devil before attempting the spell. According to the theory proposed by The Malleus Maleficarum, the odd ritual performed by the archer caused every arrow that had struck the crucifix to be connected with a guardian demon. This basically turned the arrows into medieval heat-seeking missiles. If the witch-archer launched a diabolical arrow from his bow, a guardian demon would ensure that the projectile dealt a killing blow to the intended target.

There were, however, a few limits that restrained the power of the witch-archers. For one, the demon-arrows were supposedly only effective against targets that were within eye-range of the archer. Additionally, there may have been a cap to the amount of evil arrows that the archers could produce in their ritual. The Malleus Maleficarum hinted that possibly only three or four cursed arrows could be made on any given day. Similarly, the demonic arrows could not be stockpiled to any effect, because after a wizard-archer shot three or four magical arrows, the spell would abruptly end and no other demonic arrows would work for the remainder of the day.

Read about an accused witch-archer named Puncker, HERE.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Picture Attribution: (Archer's arm guard (Bracer); Archery Equipment, c. 1752, in the MET museum, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons).

Sources:

• The Malleus Maleficarum (part II, question 2, chapter 16) by Heinrich Kramer and James Sprenger, translated by Montague Summers (Dover Publications, 1971).

According To Legend, Fortune Literally Came Knocking At Emperor Galba’s Door

Servius Sulpicius Galba was born in 3 BCE, and lived through the reigns of Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero. He came from an ancient aristocratic house and proved himself to be competent in governing several provinces of the empire, albeit in a ruthless manner. Over the decades of Julian-Claudian rule, Galba had good fortune. He became a governor of Aquitania during the reign of Tiberius. Caligula gave him another high office as governor of Germania Superior. Claudius followed suit, giving Galba a military and administrative position in Africa. Nero ignored him for a while, but eventually appointed Galba as governor of Tarraconensian Spain in 60 CE, a position that he would use to usurp power in Rome eight years later. By 68 CE, Emperor Nero had lost the support of several powerful governors in his empire. A rebellion broke out in Gaul, and Galba, with his Spanish legions, joined the rebels and became the leader. The Roman Senate was sympathetic to the rebels and declared Nero to be an enemy of the state. In June of 68 CE, Nero committed suicide and Galba was proclaimed emperor.

Up to this point, Emperor Galba had a fortunate life, especially by the ruthless standards of ancient Roman politics. His luck was so palpable that it apparently inspired a series of folkloric tales. The Roman biographer Suetonius (c. 70-130+), a man who loved such rumors and yarns, recorded two stories that gave a divine explanation for Galba’s fate. According to the tales presented by Suetonius, one of the reasons that Galba had a successful life was because he was a life-long favorite of the goddess Fortuna, the divine personification of fortune.

As the story goes, when Galba was a young man, the goddess Fortuna visited him in a dream. It was not a very elaborate dream—the setting was in his house and Galba never even saw the goddess. Instead, he only heard a knocking sound coming from his door. When Galba approached the locked door in his dream, he was greeted by the impatient voice of Fortuna, demanding that he let her in, lest she leave and grace someone else’s doorstep with her presence. Galba woke up before he could open the dream world’s door, so he did the next best thing and rushed to his front door in reality. When he opened it up, Galba realized that the goddess had actually left him a present—a bronze statue of Fortuna was apparently waiting just outside the threshold of his home.

According to Suetonius, Galba enshrined the statue in his summer home at Tusculum and offered it a sacrifice every month. With Fortuna on his side, Galba survived the tumultuous reigns of the Julio-Claudian emperors and even gained control of the empire, himself, when he was in his early seventies. Yet, something went wrong—his luck had an abrupt end. Suetonius wrote down another piece of folklore that offered a mythological explanation for Galba’s fall from grace. According to the tale, Galba began to slack in his sacrifices to Fortuna once he achieved the title of emperor. In particular, he allegedly halted a shipment of jewelry that was heading for the shrine of Fortuna at Tusculum, and instead donated the treasures to a temple of the goddess, Venus. Unfortunately, Fortuna, like many deities, was a jealous goddess, and she immediately invaded one of the emperor’s dreams to express her anger and sense of betrayal. When Galba awoke from the dream, he apparently tried to make things right, but he never regained Fortuna’s favor. In 69 CE, Galba was assassinated during a military coup spearheaded by his former ally, Otho.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Picture Attribution: (Sketch of Emperor Galba by Rembrandt (1606–1669), with a depiction of Fortuna from "The literary digest" 1890, in front of a modified cityscape by Thomas Cole (1801–1848), all [Public Domain] via Creative Commons).

Sources:

• The Twelve Caesars (Galba) by Suetonius, translated by Robert Graves and edited by James B. Rives. New York: Penguin Classics, 2007.
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Galba 
• https://www.ancient.eu/Galba/ 
• http://www.livius.org/articles/person/galba/ 
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nero-Roman-emperor  

King Harald II Allegedly Started A Fashion Trend And Consequently Received A Stylish Name

King Harald II of Norway (r. 961-970) was one of several sons fathered by King Eirik Bloodaxe, ruler of Norway in the early 940s. Nevertheless, the usurpation of the throne in 945 by Haakon the Good, Eirik’s younger brother, caused Eirik Bloodaxe and his family to flee over to the British Isles. There, Eirik managed to set himself up as King of Northumbria in 947 and remained influential in the region until his death during a raid around 954.

After Eirik Bloodaxe’s death, his wife and sons left mainland Britain and temporarily stayed in the Orkney and Shetland Islands, but ultimately relocated to Denmark, where they were given shelter by King Harald Bluetooth of the Danes (r. 958-985). From Denmark, the sons of Eirik Bloodaxe raided Norway, where Haakon the Good was still in power. The Saga of Haakon the Good, written by the Icelandic chief Snorri Sturluson (c. 1179-1241), alleged that the sons of Eirik launched four major invasions into Norway. According to the saga, each invasion failed, yet Haakon the Good was mortally wounded while pressing back the final attack in 961. As King Haakon the Good had no male heirs, he reportedly named his troublesome nephews (the sons of Eirik Bloodaxe) as his successors.

At the time of Haakon’s death, Harald II was the eldest living son of Eirik Bloodaxe, and he therefore became the next king of Norway, although he did allow his surviving brothers to share in his power. When he first took the throne, the new king was apparently known simply as Harald Eiriksson. Yet, before the end of his reign, he would gain a stylish addition to his name.

According to Snorri Sturluson, Norway saw an influx of Icelandic trade during the time of Harald II. In particular, an unnamed Icelandic merchant reportedly sailed into the Hardanger region of Norway with a large cargo of sheepskin cloaks. Unfortunately, the Icelandic trader soon discovered that his cloaks were not considered fashionable in Norway. Wealthy Norwegians stayed away from the man’s Icelandic garments as if they were the plague. Yet, the merchant’s luck abruptly changed for the better when King Harald II decided to peruse the newly arrived wares. To the merchant’s delight, the king bought a lordly gray sheepskin cloak, which he draped across his shoulders, and it became an iconic part of his wardrobe.

King Harald II must have looked great in the cloak, for all of his thanes apparently scrambled to find their own sheepskin cloaks. The Icelandic merchant, who earlier had been avoided at all costs, now found himself to be the most sought-after fashion designer in the region. Before long, the merchant’s entire cargo of sheepskin cloaks was sold off to thanes and noblemen who were eager to keep up with the latest royal fashion. According to Snorri Sturluson, it was after this encounter that the king of Norway became known as Harald Graycloak.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Picture Attribution: (Frithjof, the Viking of Norway, and Roland, the paladin of France, (c. 1899), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons and Flickr).

Sources:

• Heimskringla, by Snorri Sturluson and translated by Lee Hollander. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1964, 2018.
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Erik-I 
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Harald-II-Eiriksson  

The Odd And Exotic Culinary Dish Supposedly Loved By Short-Lived Emperor Vitellius

Emperor Vitellius was one of four emperors who ruled the Roman Empire during the chaotic year, 69 CE. The true nature of Vitellius, and that of his two predecessors, Emperors Galba and Otho, will likely always remain in relative obscurity, for the most prominent historians who lived during the late 1st century—such as Tacitus and Suetonius—were fans of the fourth and final emperor of the year, Vespasian (r. 69-79 CE). As such, the biased ancient historians unfortunately seemed to be willing to write accounts of Galba, Otho and Vitellius that were propaganda-riddled caricatures in order to make Vespasian’s reign seem all the more grand. At the least, their works were heavily influenced by Vespasian’s propaganda.

As for Emperor Vitellius, he was portrayed negatively by Suetonius (c. 70-130+) as an addict of feasting and gambling. Suetonius filled his pages with several rumors about Vitellius’ supposed gluttony. Some of the emperor’s alleged eating habits are so odd that Suetonius likely based the stories from lampoons or other mocking sources. For instance, the ancient historian would have us believe that Emperor Vitellius was gluttonous enough to steal from street vendors, to eat old discarded food scraps and to even gobble up pieces of sacrificed meat left on a god’s alter. In addition, Suetonius alleged that Vitellius hosted three or four banquets each day, and spent all the hours in-between attending feasts hosted by other citizens of Rome.

Yet, few hosts of the many feasts could ever dream of preparing one extraordinary culinary dish that was reportedly loved by the emperor. It was a huge platter of food that was given the peculiar name, “The Shield of Minerva the Protectress.” The meal’s ingredients were so bizarre that the Roman Navy allegedly had to sail to the corners of the empire to gather everything required for the recipe. According to Suetonius, a person experiencing the flavors of the Shield of Minerva would enjoy on their palate the taste of many exotic morsels, such as the brains of pheasants and peacocks, the tongues of flamingos, the liver of a pike and the milt of a lamprey. Emperor Vespasian, like most people reading the recipe now, did not find the dish to be appealing, and the so-called Shield of Minerva the Protectress was likely never prepared again after Vitellius was deposed, tortured, executed and his body disposed of in the Tiber.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Picture Attribution: (Still life with a glass bowl of fruit and vases, from Pompeii, c. 63 and the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 CE, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons).

Sources:

• The Twelve Caesars (Divus Claudius, 15) by Suetonius, translated by Robert Graves and edited by James B. Rives. New York: Penguin Classics, 2007.
• http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/64*.html 
• http://www.livius.org/articles/person/vitellius/vitellius-4/ 
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Aulus-Vitellius 
• https://www.ancient.eu/Vitellius/ 
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Vespasian    

Queen Æthelburg Of Wessex Personally Led An Army In The Destruction Of A Stronghold

Queen Æthelburg was the wife of King Ine, ruler of Wessex from 688 to 726. Her husband had a distinguished reign as king—not only was he a skilled and successful warrior, but he also was one of the first Anglo-Saxon kings to develop a written code of laws for his kingdom. In addition, this impressive king was lucky enough to be graced with a very formidable wife. Unfortunately, Bede (c. 673-735), one of the most reliable historians of the early Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, devoted incredibly little page space to Ine and Æthelburg. Therefore, most of the information on Ine and his formidable queen comes from less detailed, and more dubious, sources such as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Even so, the brief appearance that Queen Æthelburg made in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle gives a hint at just how remarkable a woman she may have been.

During his reign, King Ine constructed a stronghold in the region of Taunton. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Taunton was apparently seized in 722 by a rebellious noble named Ealdbert (or Ealdbriht), who wished to usurp power from Ine. For unexplained reasons, King Ine was evidently indisposed at the time, and unable to immediately raise an army against the rebel. Yet, even though the king was curiously absent, Queen Æthelburg was still present and she decided to take the defense of Wessex into her own hands.

As the story goes, Queen Æthelburg mustered a formidable army and marched to confront Ealdbert at Taunton. Upon arrival at the rebel stronghold, the queen’s warriors besieged Taunton and ultimately destroyed the fortification in their attempt to capture the rebellious noble. Ealdbert, however, escaped before or during the siege and fled all the way to Sussex. Later that year, King Ine returned from his mysterious sabbatical and launched an invasion into Sussex to pursue Ealdbert. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, King Ine finally tracked down and killed Ealdbert in 725.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Picture Attribution: (image of Alfred the Great's daughter, Queen Æthelflæd of Mercia, as depicted in the cartulary of Abingdon Abbey (British Library Cotton MS Claudius B VI, f.14), c. 1220, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons).

Sources:

• The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle translated by Benjamin Thorpe in 1861 and republished by Cambridge University Press, 2012.
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ine 
• https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ine-king-wessex 
• http://enacademic.com/dic.nsf/enwiki/1095550 
• http://www.britannia.com/history/somerset/castles/tauntoncast.html  

Augustus Was Rumored To Be The Son Of Apollo

Augustus’ family was one of several that claimed to have divine blood—his own Julii clan believed their lineage traced back to the goddess Venus (or Aphrodite). In addition, Julius Caesar, Augustus’ great-uncle and adoptive father, was posthumously declared a god by the senate in 42 BCE. As if this godly pedigree was not divine enough, Augustus (or his propagandists) also began to spread rumors that he was actually a son of Apollo.

The biographer Suetonius (c. 70-130+ CE) wrote about this divine origin story in the section on Augustus from his work, The Twelve Caesars. According to the tale, Augustus’ mother, Atia, went to a midnight service at a Temple of Apollo. At some point during the service, the entire crowd gathered at the temple suddenly fell asleep. After Atia awoke from her unexplained slumber and returned home, she discovered a peculiar mark on her body.  As the mysterious mark was in the shape of a serpent, an unnerving story emerged that the god Apollo (disguised as a snake) had forced everyone in the temple to fall asleep so that he could have his way with Atia. After Apollo left the scene, no sign remained of his presence except for the snake mark he left on Atia’s body, which she discovered later that night. According to Suetonius, Atia gave birth to Augustus nine months after this incident supposedly occurred.

Written by C. Keith Hansley

Picture Attribution: (Statue of Apollo (photographed by Marie-Lan Nguyen) and a statue of Augustus (via the Vatican Museum) in front of an ancient landscape painted by C. W. Eckersberg (1783-1853), all Public Domain or licensed for use via Creative Commons).

Sources:

• The Twelve Caesars by Suetonius, translated by Robert Graves and edited by James B. Rives. New York: Penguin Classics, 2007.