Darius the Great’s Palace of International Imports

The Persians, themselves, were not generally known for being expert craftsmen or monument-makers—buying finished goods or contracting skilled tradesmen from different conquered regions in the empire was more their style. Nevertheless, the wide variety of resources that were accessible to the Persian King of Kings, as well as the organization and administrative ability to pool all of these resources together for a single construction project, allowed the Persians sponsor some unique architectural feats constructed from multicultural labor and artists.

Historians know a great deal about the wide variety of resources that Persian kings like Darius I “the Great” (c. 550-486 BCE) were able to obtain for their construction projects. Darius I was known to have funded great building programs in the cities of Pasargadae, Susa and Persepolis. In the latter two cities, Darius the Great built great palaces. Despite the palace complex of Persepolis eventually gaining more grandeur and prestige, especially after additions made by Xerxes I (r. 486-465 BCE), it was the palace at Susa that was alleged to be Darius the Great’s favorite residence.

From what we know about the palace, the residence at Susa was quite a feat of logistics and labor organization. For the brickwork of the palace, Darius brought in brickmakers from Babylon. The lumber used in constructing the palace was acquired from regions such as Lebanon, Iran and Afghanistan. All of this wood was shaped and cut by carpenters from Sardinia and Egypt. Sardinians also served as stonecutters, alongside similar craftsmen from the Greek-settled portion of western Annatolia, known as Ionia.

The Ionian stonecutters brought with them an assortment of ornaments and decorations to be mounted on the palace. Ionia was not alone in this—even more precious metals and gems were brought in from other sections of the empire. From the modern regions of Afghanistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, Darius I gathered luxurious commodities such as gold, lapis-lazuli, carnelian, turquoise and ivory. Further shipments of ivory also came from the regions of Pakistan and Ethiopia. Likewise, Egypt contributed to the beauty of the palace at Susa by supplying ebony and silver. Just like the woodcutters and the stonecutters, the artists that were brought in to decorate the palace were also from regions conquered by the Persian Empire. Egyptians and Medes worked as goldsmiths and jewelers, and provided much of the artwork on the walls of the palace.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Top picture attribution: (Archers frieze from Darius' palace at Susa (cropped). Glazed siliceous bricks, c. late 6^th century, approximately 510 BCE, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons).

Sources:

• Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies: The Role of Cross-Border Trade and Travel by Michael C. Howard. North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers, 2012. 
• https://www.ancient.eu/Darius_I/ 
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Darius-I 
• https://www.britannica.com/place/Persepolis  

King Nabonidus of Babylonia—A Madman, An Ill Man, Or Just A Scholar

The history of King Nabonidus is perplexingly difficult to tell—his reign was mentioned by numerous ancient sources, yet they each differ greatly in their portrayal of his life. Nabonidus, or his rule, was mentioned in accounts such as the Bible’s Book of Daniel (although there he is mistakenly referred to as Nebuchadnezzar), the tablets of the Babylonian Chronicles, the Dead Sea Scrolls and The Histories of Herodotus. These writings, produced from different times and cultures, portrayed Nabonidus from multiple perspectives, and each for their own separate motives. Despite their different outlooks, the ancient accounts did, thankfully, corroborate on some pieces of King Nabonidus’ vague history.

Based on archaeological and written evidence, historians can sketch a loose outline of Nabonidus’ reign. It is considered historical fact that Nabonidus was the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, over which he ruled from around 556-539 BCE. Although he was a religious man, Nabonidus did not get along with the priests of Marduk, who served the most preeminent god of Babylonia. Instead, the king was especially devoted to the moon deity, Sîn, to whom Nabonidus’ mother is thought to have worked as a priestess. In terms of war, King Nabonidus may have launched a military campaign into southern Anatolia, but he generally had considerably less bloodlust than many of the other ancient kings, who often seemed to fall into perpetual warfare.

Eventually, King Nabonidus mysteriously withdrew from the capitol city of Babylon and lived at the Tamya oasis in Arabia for a period of time that lasted seven to ten years. While Nabonidus was in seclusion, his son, Belshazzar, led the administration of the empire from the city of Babylon, under the title of coregent.

The reason as to why King Nabonidus remained away from Babylon for nearly a decade is still a heavily debated issue. Some people think pressure from the priests of Marduk caused the king to leave. Other popular theories suggest that the king had a medical issue. The Prayer of Nabonidus in the Dead Sea Scrolls stated that the king suffered from a terrible ulcer, and went to the oasis at Temya for healing. The Biblical Book of Daniel stated that Belshazzar’s father was at Temya in efforts to recover from a mental illness that made the king behave like livestock, eating blades of grass from the ground. Other historians suggest that King Nabonidus was merely obsessed with archaeology and that his long period of absence was just a huge archaeological expedition to discover ancient ruins and relics.

Regardless of the cause of the king’s retreat to Tamya, Nabonidus was eventually forced to return to Babylon because of a growing threat from Persia that was truly great—in fact, it was none other than Cyrus the Great. In 539 BCE, the Persian Empire and the Neo-Babylonian Empire clashed. King Nabonidus tried to mobilize his forces to push back the Persians, but he was thoroughly outmatched. Ancient accounts of the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire vary significantly regarding how much or little fighting occurred, but the general consensus among modern historians is that the city of Babylon surrendered without a fight, and King Nabonidus was captured by the Persians. As for the fate of Nabonidus, Cyrus reportedly spared the Babylonian king’s life and let the man live out the remainder of his days in exile.

  (Basalt stela of Nabonidus, held by the British Museum, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

(Nebuchadnezzar and Daniel, by Shigeru Aoki (1882–1911), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons) 

(cropped Nebuchadnezzar by William Blake (1757–1827), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Sources:

•  Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies: The Role of Cross-Border Trade and Travel by Michael C. Howard. North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers, 2012. 
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nabonidus
• http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/cyrus_I/babylon04.html 
• http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Nabonidus 
• http://www.archaeologyexpert.co.uk/nabodinus.html 
• https://www.ancient.eu/image/4632/  

 

Did Augustus Break Off The Nose Of Alexander The Great?

Upon the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE, the Macedonian general, Ptolemy, took possession of the conqueror’s body and brought it to Egypt, where a Ptolemaic dynasty would arise. Alexander’s body was first taken to Memphis, then to Alexandria, where the king’s remains were entombed in a mausoleum. For centuries, the tomb of Alexander was a place of pilgrimage for the mighty of the ancient world, with Roman dictators and emperors often showing up to pay homage to the famous king. The tomb remained a popular site—at least for the wealthy and powerful—until the rise of Christianity in the Roman Empire during the 4th century CE, by which time the tomb had been mysteriously misplaced or hidden.

Octavian (known after 27 BCE as Augustus) was one of the many people who went to see the tomb of Alexander while its location was still commonly known. This event occurred in 30 BCE, shortly after the deaths of Mark Antony and Cleopatra. The Roman historian, Suetonius (c. 69-122 CE), wrote that Octavian had Alexander’s sarcophagus opened so that he could look at the body. He then placed a golden crown upon the head of the corpse and also scattered flowers over the opened sarcophagus. Decades after the death of Suetonius, the Roman statesman and historian, Cassius Dio (163-235 CE), added an additional piece to the story. From whatever sources he had as a senior senator of Rome, or possibly just from common rumor and folklore, Dio claimed that Octavian was not satisfied with looking at Alexander’s remains, or even crowning it with gold. Instead, according to Dio, Octavian ran his hands over the mummified flesh of the great King. He apparently was not gentle enough with the centuries-old body, for a section of Alexander’s nose broke off at Octavian’s touch.

Despite the obvious frailty and decay of Alexander’s remains, Roman emperors kept arriving at the tomb to leave new gifts on top of the frail remnants of the king. The last major figurehead believed to have viewed the corpse of Alexander is thought to have been Emperor Caracalla. The emperor entered Alexandria in 215 CE and giddily went to see the tomb of Alexander the Great, who was his hero, idol and obsession.

Top Picture attribution: (Alexander the Great, c. 1st century BCE, found in Pompeii, poked in the nose by Augustus statue of Prima Porta, c. 1st century CE, both [Public Domain] via Creative Commons).

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Sources:

• The Roman History (Book 51, chapter 16) by Cassius Dio, translated by Ian Scott-Kilvert. New York: Penguin Classics, 1987.  
• http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/suetonius/12caesars/augustus*.html
• https://archive.archaeology.org/online/features/alexander/tomb.html  

Yakudoshi—The Historical Japanese Superstition of Unlucky Ages

In Japan, many people have an interesting belief that certain years during a person’s life are much more deadly and unlucky than others. These treacherous years are called yakudoshi, which translates approximately to “unlucky years.” Generally, the modern unlucky years for women are the ages 19, 33 and 37; and the same for men are 25, 42 and 61. While these are the most common unlucky years feared in Japan today, they are not set in stone—people from different eras believed in different unlucky ages, and the list of unlucky years often varies significantly from region to region in Japan. In all, it is a complicated subject, with the years preceding and following the unlucky ages also being slightly tainted with misfortune.  If you fall under one of these many unlucky years, fret not. It is said that the bad luck can be overcome with a large dose of caution, prayer and some help from purchasable charms or amulets that can bring some much-needed luck.

The tradition of yakudoshi is not a new superstition. It is believed to have begun at least in the Heian Period of Japan, which spanned from 794-1185 CE. It is said to have sprung from the cosmological belief in the intermingling, but opposite, forces of Yin and Yang, which serves as a foundation for much of Asia’s religions and philosophies. The idea of yakudoshi played prominently in The Tale of Genji, considered to be the world’s first true novel, written by the 10th- and 11th-century authoress, Murasaki Shikibu. In her lengthy tale, several of the female characters suffered illness or death during yakudoshi years—the age of 37 was an especially dangerous time for women in The Tale of Genji.

As mentioned before, the superstition of yakudoshi still persists in Japan to this day, where shrines post lists of unlucky years, and items and actions are prescribed to secure good (or at least stable) fortune. Similarly, in some countries linked to the Western civilizations, there are people who fear the number “13” and are superstitious about “Friday the 13th.” That said, many people, in all cultures, are assuredly skeptical of humanity’s bizarre superstitions. Nevertheless, even the skeptics sometimes seem to willingly heed some of the superstitious advice just to be safe, or for the simple enjoyment of being “creeped out” together as a society.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Top picture attribution: (Japanese Shrine with a Yakudoshi list posting, photographed by mrvacbob, licensed as Creative Commons 2.0 (CC 2.0)).

Sources:

• Murasaki Shikibu's The Tale of Genji, translated by Royall Tyler. New York: Penguin Classics, 2003. 
• https://www.kcpinternational.com/2013/11/yakudoshi-japanese-unlucky-ages/ 
• https://www.japan-talk.com/jt/new/yakudoshi 
• https://www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2011/01/15/our-lives/facing-your-unlucky-years/#.WdZt0YZrzdc  

The Native American Mystic, Black Elk, Was Stranded In Europe For Over A Year

After the killing of Crazy Horse in September 1877, which occurred mere months after he surrendered to the United States military in May, many of the Native Americans who were involved in the tragic Sioux Wars (c. 1854-1890) decided to cross into the more hospitable lands of Canada. An Oglala Lakota Sioux medicine man and mystic named Black Elk was one of the many people who traveled to Canada, hoping to escape the troubles occurring in the United States. He claimed to have turned fifteen years old after he crossed the border. Yet, although he was young, he had been present at battles such as Little Bighorn (1876), where he reportedly killed and scalped at least one U.S. soldier. Black Elk stayed in Canada for several years, where he deepened his journey into religion, mysticism and supernatural healing.

Eventually, a growing desire for family and homeland drew Black Elk back to the United States. Upon his return, his career path would take some peculiar detours. When the medicine man was in his early twenties, he decided to embark on an interesting adventure—he signed up as a performer in Buffalo Bill’s Wild West show. Black Elk was a member of the performance team when the show was held in New York from November 24, 1886, through February 22, 1887. From there, Black Elk was one of 133 Native American performers that traveled with the Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show on a tour in Britain.

The showmen left New York by steamship on March 31, 1887. Black Elk confessed that he and his fellow Native Americans did not take well to the rough Atlantic travel, yet he said even the experienced ocean sailors were unsettled by the powerful storms that the showmen encountered during their journey to Europe. The exhausted performers made landfall in Gravesend, England, on April 16, 1887. They then traveled to London and set up their stage at Earl’s Court.

The London showing of Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show was held from May 9 through October 31, 1887. It drew special interest from Queen Victoria, who received a private performance on May 11. According to Black Elk, Queen Victoria was very polite to the Native Americans, and in return, the Native American performers grew quite fond of “Grandmother England,” as they named the queen (Black Elk Speaks, Chapter 19). Black Elk fondly remembered that he and his companions cheered heartily for the queen from their prestigious seats in the grandstands during Victoria’s Golden Jubilee celebration, held on June 21, 1887.

After closing shop in London, Buffalo Bill’s show held more performances in Birmingham, and then Manchester, England. With their tour of Britain done, the Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show packed up and sailed back to New York on May 6, 1888.  Yet, there was a problem—Black Elk and several other Native American performers had been left behind.

Buffalo Bill’s careless departure from England left Black Elk and his companions (most of whom spoke very little English) stranded without sufficient money with which to purchase a passage back to North America. Fortunately for the abandoned performers, another showman, with the interesting name of Captain Mexican Joe Shelly, was holding his own western show in London. Black Elk and his comrades quickly traveled to London and were hired by this Mexican Joe with the promise of a dollar per day in pay.

Black Elk stayed with Mexican Joe’s western show for more than a year, trying to make enough money for his journey home. He recalled traveling from London with the group to perform in places such as Paris and Naples. While benefitting from the generous care of a Parisian woman in France who had taken a liking to the mystic, Black Elk was informed that Buffalo Bill had returned to Europe and was going to open his Wild West show in Paris, starting on May 10, 1889. Upon hearing this information, Black Elk quickly contacted his former employer. When Buffalo Bill was told about what had happened, and that the young mystic was incredibly homesick, the famed gunman provided Black Elk with a hearty meal, paid him ninety dollars, and arranged for a ship to immediately bring him back to the United States. With the help of Buffalo Bill, Black Elk managed to return to the United States just before a wave of Ghost Dances erupted throughout the Native American community. These religious Ghost Dances frightened the U.S. military and the palpable tensions would eventually lead to needless bloodshed at a trading post infamously called Wounded Knee.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Top Picture attribution: (Black Elk as a grass dancer touring with the Buffalo Bill Wild West Show, London, England, 1887, located in the Smithsonian Institute National Anthropological Archives, [Public Domain-U.S.] via Creative Commons).

Sources:

• Black Elk Speaks, narrated by Black Elk, recorded and edited by John G. Neihardt. Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 2014. 

The Odd Story Of Ancient Athenian Olive Wood Statues

When reading any section of The Histories, you can be sure that the father of history, Herodotus, recorded for us a few bizarre and entertaining stories of history or folklore. For instance, take a look at the odd series of folklorish events surrounding a few statues made from Athenian olive wood.

At an unknown time before the Greco-Persian Wars of the 5th century BCE, the citizens of Epidaurus went to the Oracle of Delphi, hoping to receive a cure for their troubles. Despite the oracle’s reputation for riddles and vague answers, the Epidaurians received a clear response. They were told that their fortunes would improve if they built statues honoring the fertility goddesses, Damia and Auxesia, in Epidaurus. Yet, these statues required a special building material. Basic stone and metal would not do the trick. No, the oracle decreed that only statues made of olive wood could bring prosperity back to their region.

As soon as the Epidaurians received their answer from the oracle, they quickly went about gathering the materials they needed. For the required olive wood supply, Epidaurus reached out to the Athenians, whose olive groves were thought to be the most sacred of Greece. Athens allowed the citizens of Epidaurus to gather their olive wood on the condition that the Epidaurians give annual sacrifices to the deities, Athena and Erechtheus, as long as the statues were in Epidaurus. The Epidaurians agreed to the conditions and built their statues. According to Herodotus, their crop yield then began to noticeably improve.

Although Epidaurus was increasing in prosperity, another specific region under their control was growing even more powerful. According to Herodotus, the island of Aegina was long under the rule of Epidaurus. Yet, now they had raised a fleet of ships and declared independence from their former masters. During their struggle for independence, the Aeginetans seized the prized olive wood statues and brought them back to their island.

When Athens heard that the statues had been relocated to Aegina, it sent an envoy to the island, asking for the islanders to continue the annual sacrifices that the Epidaurians had been dutifully hosting.

 The Aeginetans, however, had no intention of inheriting the sacrifices carried out by the Epidaurians.

Once the people of Athens fully understood that the Aeginetans would not sacrifice to Athena and Erechtheus, they sailed troops to Aegina with the intention of repossessing the statues. When the Athenians arrived at the island, the Aeginetans let them land without any harassment. The soldiers then tried to remove the statues by hand, but the wooden structures would not budge. When hands and muscle did not do the job, the soldiers attached ropes to the statues and began pulling the monuments toward where their ships were moored. Yet, before they could reach their ships, an earthquake and thunderclap suddenly occurred, unleashing chaos on the unfortunate Athenians.

At this point, Herodotus wrote that one of two things happened. In one scenario, the Athenian crewmen all went mad and began fighting amongst themselves. After a bloody free-for-all, only one Athenian sailor remained breathing. In the other scenario, a coalition of Aeginetans and Argives ambushed the Athenians, killing all except for one of the soldiers. According to Herodotus, the name of the only surviving Athenian was Phalerum, and he somehow managed to sail back to the city of Athens.

Even though Phalerum had survived a massacre and found his way home, his fate was in no way kind. When he arrived in Athens, he was assaulted by a mob consisting of the widows of his dead crewmates. According to Herodotus, the bereaved women asked him why he was alive while their husbands were dead in Aegina. As they questioned the poor man, the widows each poked him with their broaches and clothing pins. The combined damage done by the poking, pricking and stabbing proved to be too much for Phalerum and he died from his wounds.

Herodotus made no more mention as to the whereabouts of the olive wood statues. Reasonably, they would have remained in Aegina after the Athenians were ambushed or struck with madness. As for the widows who killed Phalerum, Herodotus wrote that the city of Athens gave them an interesting form of punishment. Apparently, the women were forced to wear tunics—a punishment that would cause them some embarrassment, but, more importantly, the garments would not require broaches or pins.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Top picture attribution: (Picture of a carved wood Madonna, [Public Domain] via pixabay.com)

Sources:

• The Histories by Herodotus, translated by Aubrey de Sélincourt and revised by John Marincola. New York: Penguin Classics, 2002.