The Bizarre End To The Reign Of The Chinese King Wu of Qin

The reign of King Wu of Qin was unlike any of those that had come before him. King Wu was the second ruler of the state of Qin to hold the lofty title of “king,” the first being his father, King Huiwen. Upon the death of his father around 310 BCE, King Wu ascended to the throne of a kingdom that had been continuously gaining influence and strength. The feats of this interesting king were thankfully recorded for us by the father of Chinese history, Sima Qian (c. 145-90 BCE).

King Wu was described as a particularly strong and fit man of impressive size and stature. As you might expect, he favored people who shared his enthusiasm for fitness, bringing some of the mightiest people of Qin into his inner circle. King Wu and his muscular followers made impressive gains in the first years of the king’s rule. Some government reforms were introduced, such as exchanging the preexisting office of prime minister (xiang) with that of a chancellor (chengxiang). And, as can be expected from the Warring States Period, King Wu led the forces of Qin to victory in numerous wars against several rival states. In keeping with the ruthlessness of the time, King Wu (according to Sima Qian) gruesomely had tens-of-thousands of heads decapitated during those wars, with 60,000 men supposedly losing their heads during a campaign in the region of Yiyang.

When the king had free time between going to war and decapitating his enemies, King Wu allegedly enjoyed competing in tests of strength with his well-built companions. Around 307 or 306 BCE, King Wu was said to have challenged one particular bodybuilder named Meng Yue to a cauldron-lifting contest. It is unknown who went first in the contest, but Meng Yue faced no difficulty in the task. When King Wu stepped up to the heavy cauldron, his promising reign came to a crushing end—while lifting the weighty container, one of King Wu’s legs gave way and his knee-cap completely broke under the force.

Sima Qian wrote that King Wu died eight months after the odd incident, but did not state clearly if the king’s death was directly a consequence of the ill-fated contest. Nevertheless, it is telling that when the king died, the strongman Meng Yue was immediately put to death, along with his whole family.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Picture attribution: (King Wu lifting cauldron (aka rubbing of Shihuangdi, Han Dynasty gentlemen and photograph of a Chinese cauldron, in front of a scene by Zhang Zeduan (1085–1145)), all [Public Domain] via Creative Commons).

Sources:

• Records of the Grand Historian (Shi ji) by Sima Qian, translated by Burton Watson. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993. 
• http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/rulers-qin.html  

The Dramatic Death Of The Spartan General, Pausanias

After the death of King Leonidas in the Battle of Thermopylae (480 BCE) during the Greco-Persian Wars, the fallen king’s nephew, Pausanias, became the regent ruler of the Agiad Dynasty of Sparta. He went on to lead the Greek coalition land forces to victory against the Persian army at the Battle of Plataea one year later.

After that, Pausanias continued his exploits, landing troops in Cyprus and later seizing Byzantium from Persian control. Yet, during this time, rumor began to spread throughout Greece, painting Pausanias as an arrogant and tyrannical man who had no sense of humility and was planning to gain tremendous personal power. His supposed donation of a tripod to the Oracle of Delphi that was loftily inscribed with his own name was seen as one of many confirmations of his poor character. Even worse, Pausanias was charged with conspiring with Persia against the Greeks.

Whether the rumors were entirely true or not, the authorities back in Sparta were displeased with the negative image that Pausanias was acquiring. They had disliked his celebrity behavior after his victory in the Battle of Plataea, but now that there were charges of tyranny and treason involved, Sparta recalled its controversial general and had him give a defense against the accusations. After delivering his side of the story, Pausanias was found innocent, but just to be safe, he was stripped of his military command.

Pausanias returned to Byzantium in an unofficial capacity, where he supposedly began to adopt some aspects of Persian culture, including wearing Persian clothing. When Athens eventually forced him out of Byzantium, Pausanias fled to the city of Colonae (modern Kolonai) in the region of Troad, Anatolia. When the continued reports of collusion with Persia persisted, Sparta called Pausanias back home, once again, where he was acquitted of another charge of treason. Between 470-465 BCE, however, Pausanias was accused of supporting or inciting the Helot (serf laborers) Revolt, which threatened Sparta’s economy and social hierarchy. Commentators from that period had mixed assessments of Pausanias’ guilt. The father of history, Herodotus (490-425/420 BCE) doubted the validity of the accusations and generally presented Pausanias in a positive light. Herodotus’s most talented immediate successor, Thucydides (c. 460-400 BCE), on the other hand, never hinted at having any doubts about the proposed charges.

Whatever the truth, the accusations were convincing enough for the Spartan authorities to send a force to arrest Pausanias. The controversial general, however, saw his would-be captors, and fled to the acropolis of Sparta, where he took shelter in the temple of the Goddess of the Brazen House, a local place of worship to Athena. Rather than go into the temple in pursuit of Pausanias, the Spartans walled up the temple and deprived the man holed up inside of all food and water. The former war hero and the countrymen sent to arrest him continued their standoff for several more days, with neither side giving way. The starved Pausanias was only removed from the temple when he was on the verge of death, and, according to the legend, he died immediately after he was pulled from the sanctuary.

Interestingly, once news of the death of Pausanias spread throughout Greece, the lofty religious leadership at Delphi sided with the deceased general against Sparta. Delphi convinced Sparta to give Pausanias a hero’s funeral near the temple of the Goddess of the Brazen House and the oracle also announced that Sparta had unleashed a curse by sacrilegiously starving a man to death in sacred ground.

Written by C. Keith Hansely.

Picture attribution: (“Dying warrior” (Trojan styled), figure E-XI of the east pediment of the Temple of Aphaia, ca. 490-480 BC, cropped for social media, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons).

Sources:

• The Histories by Herodotus, translated by Aubrey De Sélincourt and revised by John Marincola (Penguin Classics, 2002). 
• History of the Peloponnesian War by Thucydides, translated by Rex Warner and introduced by M. I. Finley. New York: Penguin Classics, 1972. 
• https://www.ancient.eu/Pausanias_(General)/ 
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pausanias-Greek-military-officer 
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/helot 
• http://www.theoi.com/Cult/AthenaCult2.html  

The Rise And Destruction Of The Legalist, Lord Shang

According to traditional dating, Lord Shang was born in the ancient Chinese state of Wei around 390 BCE. At the time, as he was not yet a lord, he went by the name Wei Yang or Gongsun Yang. He began his career of law and education in his homeland of Wei, but eventually traveled to the dukedom of Qin, where his teaching would leave a lasting legacy.

Wei Yang began his political rise as an advisor to Duke Xiao of Qin (r. 361-338 BCE). He focused his advice on making the Qin state’s military, agriculture, and taxing systems more efficient. Most important, however, was Wei Yang’s vision for the law code of Qin. He envisioned a system of laws and penalties that had no exceptions and no exemptions, applicable to both peasantry and royalty. His teachings, published as The Book of Lord Shang, would serve as a foundation and standard for the government philosophy of Legalism.

Wei Yang’s policies gave the state of Qin a visible advantage in the tumultuous time of the Warring States Period, an age when numerous Chinese states battled continuously for centuries in pursuit of great power. As Wei Yang’s policies continued to shape the dukedom of Qin into an efficient and streamlined empire-building machine, Duke Xiao also promoted the advisor higher and higher in the ranks of the Qin state. Eventually, Wei Yang personally led Qin armies on campaigns, usually targeting the state of Wei. He proved himself to be a sound military strategist, successfully besieging opposing cities, and capturing rival military leaders. With his accomplishments growing, Wei Yang was granted a noble title equivalent to that of a marquis, after which he was thereafter known as Lord Shang (or Shang Yang).

Nevertheless, even though Lord Shang’s laws were strengthening Qin and he had achieved a noble title for his work, his popularity among the other nobles in the Qin court (especially the heir apparent) was abysmal. After all, Lord Shang wanted the nobility to be held just as accountable to his strict laws as the peasantry. As such, when Lord Shang’s patron, Duke Xiao, died around 338 BCE, the reforming lord quickly found himself surrounded by bitter enemies. Lord Shang tried to flee from his enemies in Qin, but Duke Huiwen, the new ruler of the Qin state, apprehended the lord and brought him back to face the angry nobility. The nobles of Qin (much like Lord Shang’s laws) showed no mercy. He was allegedly executed by being gruesomely pulled apart by horse-drawn carriages or chariots.

Even so, Lord Shang had left his mark. Legalism would survive in the state of Qin and would be a vital tool utilized by Shihuangdi, the first emperor of the Qin Dynasty, who emerged victorious from the Warring States Period in 221 BCE. Yet, just like Lord Shang, the Qin Dynasty and its Legalist policies met an early end—it collapsed around 207 or 206 BCE. The Han Dynasty that succeeded the Qin Dynasty reinstituted the Confucian view of government, but gladly kept diluted ideas from Legalism in place.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Picture attribution: (Terracotta army soldier, [Public Domain] via pixabay.jpg).

Sources:

• Records of the Grand Historian (Shi ji) by Sima Qian, translated by Burton Watson. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993. 
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Shang-Yang 
• http://www.encyclopedia.com/people/social-sciences-and-law/sociology-biographies/shang-yang 
• https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-legalism/ 
• http://philosophy.hku.hk/ch/Lord%20Shang.htm  

According To Legend, The Visigoth King Alaric That Sacked Rome In 410 Was Entombed Under A River

When Alaric was born somewhere in Romania around 370, the community of the Visigoths, like that of many other “barbarian” groups bordering the Roman Empire, was under threat by the encroaching might of the Huns. Seeking shelter and protection, the Visigoths eventually managed to gain permission to settle in the Balkan region of the Roman Empire. Yet, settlement came at a price—the Visigoths had to serve as mercenaries in the Roman military and help defend the frontiers. As such, it is no surprise that Alaric joined the Roman army during the reign of Emperor Theodosius I (r. 379-395).

When Theodosius died in 395, the eastern and western halves of the Roman Empire were once again divided, this time between Theodosius’ two sons. Emperor Arcadius was given control of the east and Emperor Honorius controlled the west. Alaric, who became chief or king of the Visigoths around the same time (either 394 or 395) thought it was the perfect time to renegotiate his people’s agreement with the Romans.

Looking for more land, a grant of citizenship, subsidies, or even just safe passage to Africa, King Alaric led an army of Visigoths first against the Eastern Roman Empire. Alaric had some successes there, but before long, was placated and appeased into ending his campaign. Therefore, he began invading Italy in 401 and received some monetary payments from Rome, but, for the most part, a Roman General named Flavius Stilicho (a man of Vandal blood) was able to keep Alaric contained for years. Alaric even agreed to work with Stilicho as an ally. Nevertheless, Flavius Stilicho was executed by Emperor Honorius in 408.

Even worse for Rome, that very same year, a faction led by a Roman Senator named Olympius massacred countless numbers of “barbarians” living within the Roman Empire. As many of these victims were the families of foreign soldiers-for-hire fighting in Rome’s military, thousands of mercenaries defected to Alaric’s army after the massacre. Inspired by Stilicho’s death and the growing strength of the Visigoth army, Alaric invaded Italy and besieged the city of Rome in 408. The Roman Senate managed to convince Alaric to withdraw after paying him and pledging to help him negotiate his terms with Emperor Honorius. When nothing came of the negotiations, Alaric besieged Rome again in 409, but withdrew after recognizing a sympathetic pretender Emperor named Attalus. Alaric, however, returned to Rome in 410 after Emperor Honorius and the pretender, Attalus, both refused to grant the Visigoths any significant concessions. This time, Alaric broke into the city and pillaged Rome for three days. Although they plundered Rome’s wealth and ravaged the city’s population, the Visigoths were remarkably respectful of Rome’s historic architectural achievements and monuments, leaving most of the city intact. After sacking Rome, Alaric departed the city, hoping to bring his people to North Africa, yet he died from disease near Consentia (modern Concenza) before the year’s end.

According to legend, the Visigoths diverted the natural course of the Busentinus River and built a sepulcher for their fallen king in the exposed riverbed. Using slave labor, a tomb fit for a king was dug and filled with treasure and war trophies. Once Alaric and his spoils were sealed away, the Visigoths allegedly killed all of the slaves who had knowledge of the tomb’s location, and returned the Busentinus to its original course, so that the waters of the river would conceal and protect the resting place of their king.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Picture attribution: (Alaric entering Athens, illustration, c. 1920s. [Public Domain] via Creative Commons).

Sources:

• Vanished Kingdoms: The Rise and Fall of States and Nations by Norman Davies. New York: Viking (Penguin Group), 2011. 
• https://www.ancient.eu/Alaric/ 
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alaric 
• http://www.historytoday.com/richard-cavendish/visigoths-sack-rome 
• http://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/ancient-history-late-roman-and-byzantine-biographies/alaric-i 
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/Visigoth 
• https://www.ancient.eu/visigoth/ 
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Theodosius-I 
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Flavius-Stilicho 
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Honorius-Roman-emperor  

Alexander The Great Allegedly Spent Almost Two Weeks Of Pleasure With An Amazonian Queen

Soon after the Persian King of Kings, Darius III, was betrayed and executed by Bessus (one of his satraps or governors) in 330 BCE, Alexander the Great marched his forces to a region known a Hyrcania, located just to the east of the Caspian sea. While he was there, he secured fertile farmlands for his empire, hired mercenaries and pacified a local tribe that allegedly had the audacity to steal Alexander’s horse. There was, however, another incident that occurred in Hyrcania that was controversial enough to cause even the ancient authorities on Alexander’s life to fiercely squabble over the truth.

The interesting episode that the ancient sources on Alexander’s life disagreed upon was a peculiar story in which Alexander the Great spent nearly two weeks of pleasure with a queen of the mythical Amazon warrior-women, a group likely inspired by the historical Scythian or Sarmatian civilizations, which featured prominent roles for women.

According to myth, the Amazons (which translates approximately to “no breast”) were a society of warrior women who were so devoted to their militancy that the members of the tribe would remove one of their breasts to make themselves better at launching deadly projectiles. According to the tales, they ruled a domain to the north of Hyrcania and the Caspian Sea. As they were an exclusively female tribe, the warrior women would periodically breed with foreign men to ensure the survival of their civilization. Yet, the fathers were not allowed to stay in Amazon territory, and male children were killed or exiled.

Bringing us back to Alexander the Great, legend has it that one particular queen of the Amazons, named Thalestris, heard of the impressive victories of Alexander against the Persians. The tales of his achievements were so extraordinary that she immediately left her homeland with a band of 300 Amazons to find the conqueror. What she had on her mind was an experiment of ancient eugenics—she believed that Alexander, as the greatest man of the age, and herself, as the greatest woman, could produce truly great children.

Thalestris and her honor guard of armed women supposedly intercepted Alexander near Hyrcania, or possibly in Parthia, where she blatantly declared that she wanted to have a child with the king. Alexander the Great, at the time an unmarried bachelor, was said to have eagerly agreed to the proposal. According to the tale, Alexander spent thirteen nights heroically seeing to the queen’s desire. After nearly two weeks of passion, Queen Thalestris returned to her realm in the north, confident that she was pregnant with a mighty child.

If the tale seems too far-fetched, you are not alone. Even the most ancient biographers of Alexander were split on the validity of this particular encounter. Plutarch (c. 46-119 CE) later wrote down a list of the two factions of Alexander biographers in his own text about Alexander the Great. On the side of doubters was Aristobulus, Chares, Ptolemy, Anticleides, Philo the Theban, Philip of Theangela, Hecataeus of Eretria, Philip the Chalcidian, and Duris of Samos. On the other hand, the advocates of the controversial episode were Cleitarchus, Polycleitus, Onesicritus, Antigenes, and Ister. Even though Plutarch sided with the skeptics, his own generation of historians still disagreed about the tale. A century before Plutarch, Diodorus Siculus happily included the enticing episode in his own text, The Library of History. In the end, it is best to regard the story of Alexander and Thalestris as unrealistic folklore, but, nevertheless, it makes for an interesting read.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Picture attribution: (Thalestris, Queen of the Amazons, visits Alexander, printed c. 1696, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons).

Source:

• Alexander the Great by Philip Freeman. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 2011. 
• http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0243%3Achapter%3D46 
• http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/17D*.html#note76 
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Bessus 
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sarmatian