The Historian's Hut: Did You Know?: July 2017

Monday, July 31, 2017

Monks Tried To Assassinate Saint Benedict

(Saint Benedict painted by Francisco de Zurbarán (1598–1664), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

Perhaps no other theologian or church reformer has affected Christian monasticism as much as Saint Benedict of Nursia (c. 480-547 CE). What we know of St. Benedict primarily comes from the pope-saint, Gregory I, who wrote his Dialogues near the end of the 6th century CE. Although the Dialogues contain little to no dates, and folklore and legend have a heavy presence in the text, St. Gregory’s account of Benedict’s life is generally considered to be factual. According to St. Gregory, Benedict of Nursia had quite an interesting life.

St. Benedict was the son of a Roman noble. He received an early education at Nursia, but obtained higher and fuller schooling in the city of Rome. Sometime after completing his education, Benedict fled the city and its luxurious lifestyle. Forsaking his noble birth, St. Benedict withdrew to the countryside and eventually became a hermit, living somewhere near modern Affile and the foothills of Abruzzi. There, he gained a lofty reputation as a miracle healer and as a generally pious person.

Drawn by the hermit’s reputation, local monks approached St. Benedict and begged him to become their abbot. The monks managed to convince St. Benedict, so the hermit returned with the monks to lead the monastery. The local monks, however, soon began to regret St. Benedict’s presence. Benedict did not just want to continue the monastic status quo—the man was a revolutionary who demanded more discipline and piety in his monastery. Yet, the monks, many of whom were former nobles like Benedict, did not appreciate their new abbot’s strict rules.

Eventually, the unhappy grumblings of the monks devolved into murderous plotting. According to the ancient sources about Benedict’s life, the monks may have attempted to end their abbot’s life in two ways. They apparently poisoned Benedict’s bread and then his wine, with the wine attempt being the most spectacular—according to the story, St. Benedict made the sign of the cross over the wine and the cup shattered, spilling its contents on the floor. Whether by luck, by God or by caution and cunning, St. Benedict survived the assassination attempts carried out by his ungrateful charges.

When St. Benedict learned that the monks of his monastery were trying to kill him, he resigned as abbot and returned to his life as a hermit. The saint, however, did not remain in isolation for long. As more and more disciples flocked to St. Benedict, he was convinced to try his hand at monasticism, once more. He founded twelve monasteries and imposed on them his Rule of St. Benedict. Now, he is considered the father of Western monasticism and was even declared the patron saint of Europe in 1964, by Pope Paul VI.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Sources:

Friday, July 28, 2017

Alexander The Great May Not Have Visited One Of The Ancient Wonders Of The World In Egypt

(Alexander by Placido Costanzi (Italian, 1702-1759) in front of the Pyramids of Giza [Public Domain] via Creative Commons and Pixabay.com)

For a historical figure in the 4th century BCE, Alexander the Great’s life is fairly well documented. The various ancient biographies and accounts about the great king may come to different conclusions about the character of Alexander, as well as motivations behind his conquests, but they tell a remarkably concise story for a man who lived and died more than two millennia in the past.

Like most other periods of Alexander the Great’s conquests, a variety of sources described Alexander’s actions in Egypt. We know that after the Battle of Issus in 333 BCE, Alexander the Great marched his army against the Middle East. In 332, he massacred the population of Tyre after a grueling siege. In the same year, he allegedly took most of Gaza without bloodshed, except when a city led by a man named Battis refused to surrender. The citizens of that particular city were butchered or enslaved, and the leader was tortured to death. In Egypt proper, we know he visited Memphis and paid respects to the sacred Apis Bull. He also founded the great city of Alexandria, and traveled to the Siwah Oasis to honor the god Ammon, who was often associated with Zeus. After that, he left Egypt and continued to press deeper into the Persian Empire.

After reading about all of these things that Alexander the Great did in the Middle East and Egypt, many observers have an interesting question—did Alexander the Great visit the Great Pyramids of Giza? Unfortunately, no one knows. Every single major source about Alexander’s life neglects to mention if the king went to see the pyramids and their iconic guardian sphinx. As an educated and worldly man, there is no way that Alexander was ignorant of the pyramids’ existence. For the most part, most scholars believe Alexander the Great certainly took a trip to the Great Pyramids—yet, the ancient sources oddly made no mention of the great king ever paying the famous structures a visit.

Written by C. Keith Hansely.

Sources:

Alexander the Great by Philip Freeman. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 2011.
Alexander the Great: The Story of an Ancient Life by Thomas R. Martin and Christopher W. Blackwell. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012.

Wednesday, July 26, 2017

Charlemagne’s Bloody Verdict Against The Saxons At Verden

(Portrait of Charlemagne by Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

Charlemagne (r. 768-814) can often be viewed as a bright, radiant light in the ruthless Dark Ages. His rule was usually just, and he pushed the people of his empire to renew their interest in art and education. For the most part, Charlemagne is remembered as a ruler who was both effective in management and beneficial to his people.

Yet, as almost the entirety of Charlemagne’s reign was spent in continuous waves of warfare, his actions caused incalculable quantities of bloodshed. As the king of the Franks and the first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, threats to his realm were constant and his own ambitions often brought about violence.

One of the darkest marks on Charlemagne’s record occurred during the Frankish campaign against the Saxons. He invaded Saxony in 772 CE, taking control of the region. With victory came plundering, enslavement and the smashing of pagan shrines. Yet, the victory was not complete. Even though Saxon lands were occupied by Frankish forces, the fighting spirit of the Saxons was not yet broken—it would take thirty years of war for the Franks to suppress the Saxons.

Ten years into the Frankish occupation of Saxony, a Saxon leader named Widukind began instigating rebellion against Charlemagne. He managed to incite a rebellious spirit back into many of the Saxons who had previously surrendered to the Franks. With Widukind leading the way, the rebellious Saxon army attacked a nearby Frankish army. Despite the Frankish force being led by at least two of Charlemagne’s trusted officers, the Saxons won a decisive victory. The two liegemen of Charlemagne who led the Frankish army were both killed in the battle.

When Charlemagne heard of the revolt in Saxony and the deaths of his two lieutenants, the king mobilized his forces and marched against the Saxons. With a massive army of Franks bearing down on them, the Saxon people betrayed the rebels, causing thousands of men to fall into Charlemagne’s custody. According to the Royal Frankish Annals, Charlemagne was not in a forgiving mood—he had 4,500 of the Saxon rebels executed, supposedly on a single day, in 782 CE. The event is now remembered as the Bloody Verdict of Verden.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Sources:

Tuesday, July 25, 2017

Oddities From Herodotus—The Neurian Sorcerer-Werewolves

(Detail from an Attic red-figure lekythos, ca. 460 BC. Found in Italy, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

An interesting characteristic of the ancient father of history, Herodotus, was that the man often believed in the unbelievable—or, at least, gave off that impression in his writing. Odd folklore, mythology, tall tales and bizarre theories on science and geography all made appearances in Herodotus’ The Histories. Yet, in the peculiar collection of history, folklore and myth that is the work of Herodotus, the description of the Neuri people has to be one of the most baffling. It is such an odd tale that Herodotus, himself, blatantly stated his disbelief of the Neurian story, but he recorded the peculiar yarn all the same.

According to Book IV of The Histories, the Neuri people were neighbors of the Scythians. The Scythian people inhabited a large territory usually centered around Ukraine and southern Russia, but they lived a nomadic lifestyle, so their borders could be flexible. The Neurians were located somewhere on the border of this large swath of Scythian territory.

Readers of The Histories are introduced to the Neuri people at a time of chaos. Herodotus wrote that only a single generation before Darius I of Persia crossed the Danube River to attack the Scythians (around 513 BCE), the whole of the Neurian lands were infested with vicious snakes. Herodotus wrote that hordes of snakes just suddenly and mysteriously appeared throughout the territory. To make matters worse, even more snakes were apparently pouring in from an uninhabited land to the north. The snake infestation was so bad that the Neurians had to flee their lands and seek shelter with another nomadic group, the Bundinians, who lived in, or near, the area of Scythia.

After this odd introduction to the Neuri people, Herodotus made another shocking disclosure—the Neurians were sorcerers and werewolves. Supposedly, due to some sort of magic, the Neuri people (yes, the entire Neurian population) would turn into beasts for multiple days on a seemingly set annual cycle. After their few days as wolves were up, the Neurians would simply return to their original human form and life would go on, as usual. Again, Herodotus quickly pointed out that the story was too far-fetched for his taste and that he was only recording what was told to him by other Greeks and Scythians. He wrote, “I do not believe this tale; but all the same, they tell it, and even swear to the truth of it” (Herodotus (Book IV), The Histories, Penguin Classics, 2002). Nevertheless, the tale remained alive until the 1st century CE, when a Roman geographer named Pomponius Mela made a mention of the Neurian werewolves around 43 or 44 CE in his De situ orbis (A Description of the World).

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Sources:

The Histories by Herodotus, translated by Aubrey de Sélincourt and revised by John Marincola. New York: Penguin Classics, 2002.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pomponius-Mela
https://linguistics.osu.edu/herodotos/ethnonym/thracian-scythians/budinians
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Darius-I

Monday, July 24, 2017

Alexander Pushkin, The Father Of Russian Literature, Was Killed As A Result Of A Duel

(Portrait of Alexander Pushkin by Orest Kiprensky (1782–1836), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

An eerie amount of artists and creative geniuses often have wild personalities and lifestyles that, unfortunately, can all too easily lead to early deaths. Alexander Pushkin (1799-1837), the father of Russian literature, was one of these brilliant people who met an early end.

Pushkin was a Russian noble who belonged to a prestigious noble family. From an early age, he was exposed to the great works of literary powerhouses from France and Britain. Throughout the rest of his life, Pushkin would combine what he learned from the literary masters of Europe with the history and folklore of Russia. He would also create new styles of poetry and prose, as well as set the standard for future Russian literary works.

Pushkin was a prolific writer, even from his earliest days—by the time he graduated from the Lyceum of Tsarkoe Selo in 1817, he had already written around 130 poems. Few of these, however, were published. The first major work that brought Alexander Pushkin any nationwide acclaim was his epic poem published in 1820, Ruslan I Liudmila or Ruslan and Ludmila.

That same year, in 1820, Pushkin was sent into exile in southern Russia because of challenges to authority present in his poetry. His years of exile officially ran from 1820-1823, but he would remain under government suspicion for the rest of his life. During these years of exile, Pushkin’s wild side became more pronounced—he drank, gambled and dueled. In 1823 and 1824, Alexander Pushkin spent time in Odessa practicing the vices listed above, as well as pursuing the wife of the local lord, Count Vorontsov. Around this time, he also began his seven-year endeavor of writing his highly-acclaimed masterpiece, Evgeny Onegin or Eugene Onegin, which was finally published in 1833.

As Alexander Pushkin grew older, everything in his life escalated. On the one hand, his writing continued to improve, but on the other, his relationship with the other Russian nobility grew more tense and bitter. One would have hoped that Alexander Pushkin’s marriage to Natalia Goncharova in 1831 would calm down the great poet’s life, but it unfortunately seemed to have the opposite effect. Although the two had three children together, most believe the marriage was not happy for either party.

By 1837, the last year of Pushkin’s life, the poet had already been involved in an estimated 28 duels. In January of that year, Alexander Pushkin and his wife, Natalia, attended a party with other Russian nobles, as well as foreign guests. Among the crowd was a French noble and military officer, named George D’Anthès-Heeckeren, who had long fancied Natalia Goncharova. When, during the course of the party, Alexander Pushkin discovered that his own wife and the Frenchman, D’Anthès, were exchanging flirtatious banter, the great poet decided it was time for a 29th duel.

George D’Anthès accepted the duel and the two men met at a predesignated location to settle their dispute with loaded pistols. The men took their required steps away from each other and prepared to fire. Alexander Pushkin, a veteran duelist, was reported to usually keep calm in his duels. Yet, this time, he charged against the Frenchman to get a closer, deadlier shot. Unfortunately for the father of Russian literature, George D’Anthès was the first to shoot, hitting Alexander Pushkin in the abdomen. Though injured, legend claims that Pushkin still fired his pistol, grazing D’Anthès, but not seriously injuring the man. Pushkin’s own injuries, however, were serious and eventually fatal.

Alexander Pushkin died on January 29, 1837, only two days after the duel. He was buried near the grave of his mother at the Svyatye Gory Monestary. The Russian people immediately mourned his death. Many of Pushkin’s fellow nobles, however, supported George D’Anthès.

Writeen by C. Keith Hansley.

Sources:

Museum Secrets Revealed, “Moscow” S2/E8, 2014.
https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/alexander-pushkin
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Aleksandr-Sergeyevich-Pushkin
http://www.notablebiographies.com/Pe-Pu/Pushkin-Aleksandr.html
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/secret/famous/pushkingenealogy.html

Sunday, July 23, 2017

The Arousing Treasures of Farouk I, The Former King of Egypt

(King Farouk of Egypt (1948), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

Farouk I (1920-1965) was the tenth king of Egypt from the Muhammad Ali Dynasty. He received a British education from the Royal Military Academy of Woolwich, England, and returned to Egypt to become king in 1936, after the death of his father, King Fuad I. Farouk was only sixteen when he ascended to power.

As a new king, Farouk I attempted to institute some reforms in Egypt. Yet, he also inherited his father’s political rivalries—especially against the Wafd political party. As a result of the opposition, Farouk’s ideas on reform met resistance.

From an early age, Farouk was interested in collecting. He had vast land holdings, more than a hundred cars and immense collections of coins and jewels. In addition, King Farouk gathered one of the world’s largest collections of pornography. He also was reported to sometimes take things that did not belong to him—in King Farouk’s most legendary feats of theft, he allegedly stole a watch from Winston Churchill and made off with a ceremonial sword from the grave of a dead Iranian Shah. During his life, Farouk was also known for collecting women. He married at least two times, and had multiple affairs, the most notable of them being with Irene Guinle, Capece Minutolo and the British writer, Barbara Skelton.

Despite King Farouk’s celebrity style and playboy charm, the age in which he lived made it difficult for the king to remain popular, and his luxurious lifestyle was always a target for criticism. Unfortunately, the events of World War Two and the Arab-Israeli War (of 1948) further destabilized Egypt. In 1952, a military coup, carried out by the Free Officers and led by Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser, forced King Farouk I to abdicate. The throne passed to Farouk’s infant son, but Egypt was quickly declared a republic, eradicating the monarchy.

In the aftermath of the coup, King Farouk was forced into exile. The speedy exit caused the young king (only thirty six at the time) to leave behind many of his treasures. The fortunes he left in Egypt included much of the royal jewel and coin collections, as well as thousands of suits. In addition, thousands of pornographic neckties from his adult-themed collection were also reportedly left behind. He did, however, manage to keep much of his wealth—King Farouk skillfully smuggled bars of gold out of Egypt by packing them into shipping crates that were labeled as carrying alcoholic beverages.

During his exile, King Farouk continued his luxurious lifestyle. In 1965, the forty-five year old king died in Rome, after eating a rich feast while in the company of a twenty-two year old woman.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Sources:

Wednesday, July 19, 2017

Epilepsy—The Ancient Sacred Disease

(The Scream (cropped) painted by Edvard Munch (1863–1944), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

The ancient Babylonians are thought to have been the first people to mention epilepsy, or at least a disease with similar symptoms, in a written language. The Babylonians told of violent seizures they thought were caused in man by the influences of demons, or other dark deities. The ancient Greeks, to an extent, agreed with this belief. Epilepsy, or as the ancient Greeks called it, the Sacred Disease, was the go-to illness used by the gods to punish humans who drew the unforgiving ire of heaven.

Around 400 BCE, Hippocrates dealt the first blow against this ancient perception of epilepsy. Hippocrates, rather than agreeing that the disease was caused by the wrath of the gods, instead proposed that the disease was a natural illness and suggested that it should be addressed like any other disease. Nevertheless, despite Hippocrates’ best efforts, the perception of epilepsy as a divine punishment persisted in Greek culture.

The Romans, too, often believed epilepsy to be a ‘Sacred Disease.’ Yet, there seemed to be a dualistic view of the disease, at times seemingly based on social status. In the case of the commoners, epilepsy was usually considered a punishment. Yet, for oracles or nobility, the occurrence of epilepsy could sometimes be seen as a positive sign of a prophetic gift.

Even during the Middle Ages and the dawn of the modern era, many countries still believed epileptic seizures to be a sign of demonic possession. Fortunately, with modern improvements in medicine and research, epilepsy has begun to be truly deciphered and understood.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Sources: