The Persian Origin Of The Word, “Checkmate”

The game of chess is arguably one of the most popular board games on earth, with a following in most countries around the world. Yet, despite this worldwide interest, the answers to vital questions about the game remain a mystery. For example, scholars have not been able to decisively pin down the exact location in which the game war born. In general, chess is thought to have originated in Asia around the 6th-century, with India being the most likely bet. Thankfully, we are much more certain about the origin of chess’ iconic victory-phrase—checkmate.

According to Persian legend, the game of chess was introduced into the Sasanian Persian Empire during the reign of Khosrow I (or Khusrau I, r. 531-579). In a dubious tale recorded during that time, the Persians were said to have sent their game of backgammon to India, and received chess in return in a sort of battle of wits, where each culture tried to decipher logic of the game rules created by the other country. Whether or not chess was introduced to Persia in this manner, the game did, indeed, become popular in the Middle East over the next few centuries.

Etymologists believe that the origin of the word, checkmate, traces back to the language of the Persians. In the Persian language, the objective of the game was to defeat the enemy king (shah) by making the king piece helpless or finished (mat). So, the phrase “shah mat” was coined by the Persians to state that “the king is helpless” or “the king is finished.” The phrase lived on in Arabic (as al-shāh māta), but was interpreted differently, translating into something akin to “the king is dead.” The phrase traveled to medieval France, where it was translated into “eschec mat” and then appeared in the Middle English language as “chekmaten.” Over time, the victory phrase simplified and modernized into the current English statement of “checkmate.”

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Picture attribution: ("Buzurgmihr Masters the Game of Chess" by Ferdowsi (940–1020), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons).

Sources:

• https://www.britannica.com/topic/chess  
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Khosrow-I
• https://www.etymonline.com/word/checkmate 
• https://www.jstor.org/stable/594376?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents 
• https://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2011/the-game-of-kings-medieval-ivory-chessmen-from-the-isle-of-lewis/exhibition-blog/game-of-kings/blog/shah-mat 
• http://etymology.enacademic.com/9184/checkmate 
• https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/checkmate  

 

The Furies, Or Erinyes, Of Greek And Roman Mythology

Few creatures of ancient myth were described as being more grotesque than the Furies, also known as the Erinyes. According to legend, the Furies consisted of three vengeful goddesses named Alecto, Megaera and Tisipone. One of the more prominent myths of their birth claimed that the Furies were mothered by the primordial earth goddess, Gaia; she was allegedly impregnated by the dripping blood of Uranus, who was murdered by his own son, Cronus.

Generally, the Furies were supposed to be servants of the underworld, at the heed of its king and queen—Hades and Persephone. Yet, they also seemed to have been open to contracts handed down to them by other gods and goddesses. For example, Virgil wrote in The Aeneid that Juno (the Roman equivalent of the goddess, Hera) sent Alecto to spread rage and madness in Italy, in order to bring about a war between the native Italians and the Trojan refugees that landed there after being displaced by the Trojan War. Besides doing the bidding of the gods, the Furies were also bounty hunters that tracked down and punished those who transgressed the gods or universal laws, especially crimes against one’s own family.

The characteristics and abilities of the Furies were an interesting mixture of powers that could be found in other mythological beings. Like harpies, the Furies often were depicted as ferocious female creatures with wings. Like gorgons, the hair of the Furies was made up of coiling snakes. For weapons, the Furies carried whips, but they also had the supernatural ability to instill madness and rage in their enemies. Other aspects of their appearance could change based on the imagination of the commentator. Sometimes they wore robes, and at other times they dressed in shorter cloth garments. Similarly, their eyes could at times seem to be on fire, but at other times they could be described as having eyes that dripped blood.

Once the Furies were on the trail of prey, they were persistent and unforgiving huntresses. According to legend, the Furies could sometimes be appeased by rituals of purification or shows of atonement. Another option that required less work, but more luck, was to gain the sympathy of one of the gods—in the case of Orestes, Athena successfully ordered the Furies to end their hunt.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Picture attribution: (The Furies and other underworld creatures by Wenceslaus Hollar (1607–1677), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons).

Sources:

• The Aeneid by Virgil, translated by Robert Fagles. New York: Penguin Books, 2006. 
• http://www.theoi.com/Khthonios/Erinyes.html 
• http://www.pantheon.org/articles/a/alecto.html  

The Aberlemno Kirkyard Stone In Scotland And The Battle Of Nechtansmere

The carved standing stones in the village of Aberlemno, Scotland, are beautiful pieces of artwork left behind by the Picts. In particular, the stone known as Aberlemno II tells a significant story. On one side, the stone displays a brilliant cross, but on the reverse, is carved several scenes from a battle of vital importance to the creation of what would become Scotland—the Battle of Nechtansmere.

The prime written source of information on the Battle of Nechtansmere, also known as the Battle of Dun Nechtain, comes from the Northumbrian monk named Bede (c. 673-735), who would have been about 12 years old when the battle occurred. Bede wrote about the battle in his lauded work, the Ecclesiastical History of the English People.

According to Bede, King Ecgfrith of Northumbria made the fateful decision to march his army north in 685 to do battle with the Picts. The Picts were an ancient people of northern Britain who were, at the time, competing for supremacy in the north against the Britons and the Scots. The main leader of the Picts in 685 was a man named Bridei map Bili (alternatively Brude mac Bile, or Brude/Bridei III), the king of Fortriu. He mobilized a force of Picts and quickly maneuvered himself to intercept the Northumbrians. King Bridei possibly also gained the help of an interesting kingdom of Britons centered in the Dumbarton Rock region—known by impressive names, such as the Kingdom of the Rock, Strathclyde, or Alt Clut.

According to Bede, the army of Bridei map Bili found the Northumbrians and lured them deeper into Pictish territory, toward a narrow mountain pass. Finally, the Picts ambushed the Northumbrian army in the Battle of Nechtansmere, somewhere near the modern town of Forfar, within Angus, Scotland. In the ensuing massacre, King Ecgfrith was killed, along with the majority of his army.

The Battle of Nechtansmere was a turning point in the history of the British Isles. The battle halted the expansion of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms to the north, and also served as a clear sign that the Kingdom of Northumbria was in decline. Sometime during the 8th century, the Picts erected the Aberlemno II stone, commemorating the victory of Bridei map Bili over King Ecgfrith and the Northumbrians.

  (Pictish stone in the churchyard at Aberlemno Parish Church (the stone is sometimes known as Aberlemno II). The battle scene depicted is generally accepted to be that of the Battle of Nechtansmere. [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Sources:

• Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the English People (and relevant letters), translated by Leo Sherley-Pride, R. E. Latham and D. H. Farmer. New York: Penguin Classics, 2003. 
• Vanished Kingdoms: The Rise and Fall of States and Nations by Norman Davies. New York: Viking (Penguin Group), 2011. 
• http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100226775 
• https://www.ancient.eu/Battle_of_Dun_Nectain/ 
• http://www.ancient-scotland.co.uk/site.php?a=2 
• https://www.historyscotland.com/articles/on-this-day-in-history/the-battle-of-nechtansmere-was-fought-on-this-day-in-history 
• https://www.historicenvironment.scot/visit-a-place/places/aberlemno-sculptured-stones/ 
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ecgfrith 
• https://www.britannica.com/place/Strathclyde 
• http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/modern-europe/wars-and-battles/battle-nechtansmere  

The Interesting Coronation Ceremonies Of The Achaemenid Persian King Of Kings

The Achaemenid Persians, like most other civilizations that are ruled by a single figurehead, held the succession process of their leaders in high regard. To make the ascension of a new King of Kings into a grandiose moment, symbolic ceremonies and rituals were implemented during coronations to make the event more weighty and memorable for the onlookers and participants. Evidence of what was done during these coronations can be gleaned from archaeological evidence, such as wall reliefs and coins, as well as textual materials from within the Persian Empire and commentary from outside observers, such as Diodorus Siculus (active 1st century BCE) and Plutarch (1st and 2nd century CE).

 The Achaemenid Empire of Persia was formed under Cyrus the Great (c. 6th century BCE) and lasted until Alexander the Great destroyed the dynasty in 330 BCE. With its heartland in Persia (modern Iran), the Achaemenid Empire eventually extended eastward to touch the Indus River and westward to border Greece. The Achaemenid King of Kings wore a golden crown, which he personally placed upon his own head during his coronation. Along with the crown, each king would light a sacred fire that was to be kept constantly ablaze for the remainder of his reign and would only be extinguished when the monarch passed away. A new king was also likely required to assume a new name after taking power.

In addition to (and likely preceding) the ceremonies listed above, the new Achaemenid kings were also expected to make a pilgrimage to the city of Pasargadae, now located in the Fars province of Iran. The tomb of Cyrus the Great was there (and still is there), and it was also the location where Cyrus defeated the Medes before expanding his empire. According to Plutarch’s Artaxerxes (chapter 3), the Achaemenid kings after Cyrus traveled to Pasargadae to participate in an odd coronation ritual.

Upon arriving at the city, they would travel to a sanctuary of a war goddess (probably Anāhitā) that the Greeks associated with Athena. In that sanctuary, the kings reportedly dressed in simple clothing that had once been worn by Cyrus the Great. Next, they ate a cake made from figs and chewed on turpentine-wood. Finally, they washed it all down with what Plutarch described as sour milk. Modern scholars, however, suspect the liquid was probably sacred haoma juice, or possibly dūḡ, an ancient (but still existent) drink prepared from yogurt, water and other added ingredients. These rituals have been interpreted as an act of remembrance to remind the luxurious Achaemenid kings that Cyrus and the original Persian warriors began the empire from simple and humble origins. Plutarch hinted that, in similarity to initiates inducted into other mystery religions and secret societies, the Achaemenid kings likely did other rituals and ceremonies in Pasargadae that were kept secret to the uninitiated.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Picture attribution: (Ancient relief from Mesopotamia, [Public Domain] via pxhere.com).

Sources:

• Alexander the Great by Philip Freeman. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 2011. 
• http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0010%3Achapter%3D3 
• http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/17F*.html 
• http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coronation-pers 
• http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/dug 
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cyrus-the-Great 
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Artaxerxes-I 
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/Anahiti 
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/haoma 
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Diodorus-Siculus 
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Plutarch  

Perpetual Battle And Giant Animals In the Valhalla Of Norse Mythology

According to Norse Mythology, every single warrior who died in battle, and gained the approval of the All-Father, Odin, while doing so, is now residing in Asgard, the land of the gods. There, they reside in the famous hall of Valhalla, feasting and preparing for the great apocalyptic battle of Ragnarok. In his work, The Prose Edda, Snorri Sturluson (1179-1241) recorded a vivid description of Valhalla, drawing heavily from The Lay of Grimnir for his detail.

According to these sources, Valhalla is a huge hall outfitted with at least 540 doors standing tall and wide enough for around eight hundred rushing soldiers to easily pass through each doorway. Every day the Einherjar, the warriors who died in battle and were allowed to enter Odin’s hall, wake up, don their battle-gear and fight to the death amongst themselves, only to revive and meet back at Valhalla for a feast around suppertime. At the head of the feast sits Odin (curiously drinking only wine and not eating food), surrounded by his several pets. The All-Father, according to myth, is accompanied by two wolves, named Geri and Freki, and two ravens (or crows, for the less poetic), named Hugin and Munin. The ravens serve an important role for Odin, acting as his spies and scouts, gathering intelligence on the countless happenings among the humans, elves, dwarves, giants and gods.

Odin’s wolves and ravens, however, are not the most interesting animals present in Valhalla. The unimaginable quantity of food and drink required to happily feed all of the fallen warriors throughout history is, according to myth, apparently satisfied by two huge animals. For the food supply, a single boar named Saehrimnir is carved and cooked daily by a chef named Andhrimnir. The boar’s meat never fails to fill the stomachs of the Einherjar, and no matter how much has been carved from the beast, it always regenerates by nightfall, so as to be cooked again on the next day. As for drink, all of the alcohol consumed by the inhabitants of Valhalla comes from a giant goat named Heidrun. She stands atop Valhalla and perpetually chews on the leaves of a tree named Lerad (or Laerad), which some assume to be interchangeable with the World Tree of Norse mythology, Yggdrasil. While Heidrun merrily chews on her leaves, an endless supply of mead pours from her udders, supplying the warriors of Valhalla with all the alcoholic drink they could ever want or need.

Heidrun, according to myth, has to share the roof of Valhalla with another giant animal. Her companion’s name is Eikthyrnir, or Oak Antlers. Eikthynir is a huge stag who also spends his time chomping away at the great tree. While Heidrun eats the tree’s leaves and produces mead, Eikthynir gnaws at the tree’s branches. This oddly causes Eikthynir’s antlers to perspire profusely, causing enough water to pour from his horns to supply many of the rivers throughout Asgard.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Picture Attribution: (Valhalla painted by Hermann Burghart (1834-1901), [Public Domain] via creative Commons).

Sources:

• The Prose Edda by Snorri Sturluson, translated by Jesse Byock. New York: Penguin Classics, 2005. 
•   http://www.germanicmythology.com/PoeticEdda/GRMTerry.html