The Interesting Coronation Ceremonies Of The Achaemenid Persian King Of Kings

The Achaemenid Persians, like most other civilizations that are ruled by a single figurehead, held the succession process of their leaders in high regard. To make the ascension of a new King of Kings into a grandiose moment, symbolic ceremonies and rituals were implemented during coronations to make the event more weighty and memorable for the onlookers and participants. Evidence of what was done during these coronations can be gleaned from archaeological evidence, such as wall reliefs and coins, as well as textual materials from within the Persian Empire and commentary from outside observers, such as Diodorus Siculus (active 1st century BCE) and Plutarch (1st and 2nd century CE).

 The Achaemenid Empire of Persia was formed under Cyrus the Great (c. 6th century BCE) and lasted until Alexander the Great destroyed the dynasty in 330 BCE. With its heartland in Persia (modern Iran), the Achaemenid Empire eventually extended eastward to touch the Indus River and westward to border Greece. The Achaemenid King of Kings wore a golden crown, which he personally placed upon his own head during his coronation. Along with the crown, each king would light a sacred fire that was to be kept constantly ablaze for the remainder of his reign and would only be extinguished when the monarch passed away. A new king was also likely required to assume a new name after taking power.

In addition to (and likely preceding) the ceremonies listed above, the new Achaemenid kings were also expected to make a pilgrimage to the city of Pasargadae, now located in the Fars province of Iran. The tomb of Cyrus the Great was there (and still is there), and it was also the location where Cyrus defeated the Medes before expanding his empire. According to Plutarch’s Artaxerxes (chapter 3), the Achaemenid kings after Cyrus traveled to Pasargadae to participate in an odd coronation ritual.

Upon arriving at the city, they would travel to a sanctuary of a war goddess (probably Anāhitā) that the Greeks associated with Athena. In that sanctuary, the kings reportedly dressed in simple clothing that had once been worn by Cyrus the Great. Next, they ate a cake made from figs and chewed on turpentine-wood. Finally, they washed it all down with what Plutarch described as sour milk. Modern scholars, however, suspect the liquid was probably sacred haoma juice, or possibly dūḡ, an ancient (but still existent) drink prepared from yogurt, water and other added ingredients. These rituals have been interpreted as an act of remembrance to remind the luxurious Achaemenid kings that Cyrus and the original Persian warriors began the empire from simple and humble origins. Plutarch hinted that, in similarity to initiates inducted into other mystery religions and secret societies, the Achaemenid kings likely did other rituals and ceremonies in Pasargadae that were kept secret to the uninitiated.

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Picture attribution: (Ancient relief from Mesopotamia, [Public Domain] via pxhere.com).

Sources:

• Alexander the Great by Philip Freeman. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 2011. 
• http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0010%3Achapter%3D3 
• http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/17F*.html 
• http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coronation-pers 
• http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/dug 
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cyrus-the-Great 
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Artaxerxes-I 
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/Anahiti 
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/haoma 
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Diodorus-Siculus 
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Plutarch  

King Nabonidus of Babylonia—A Madman, An Ill Man, Or Just A Scholar

The history of King Nabonidus is perplexingly difficult to tell—his reign was mentioned by numerous ancient sources, yet they each differ greatly in their portrayal of his life. Nabonidus, or his rule, was mentioned in accounts such as the Bible’s Book of Daniel (although there he is mistakenly referred to as Nebuchadnezzar), the tablets of the Babylonian Chronicles, the Dead Sea Scrolls and The Histories of Herodotus. These writings, produced from different times and cultures, portrayed Nabonidus from multiple perspectives, and each for their own separate motives. Despite their different outlooks, the ancient accounts did, thankfully, corroborate on some pieces of King Nabonidus’ vague history.

Based on archaeological and written evidence, historians can sketch a loose outline of Nabonidus’ reign. It is considered historical fact that Nabonidus was the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, over which he ruled from around 556-539 BCE. Although he was a religious man, Nabonidus did not get along with the priests of Marduk, who served the most preeminent god of Babylonia. Instead, the king was especially devoted to the moon deity, Sîn, to whom Nabonidus’ mother is thought to have worked as a priestess. In terms of war, King Nabonidus may have launched a military campaign into southern Anatolia, but he generally had considerably less bloodlust than many of the other ancient kings, who often seemed to fall into perpetual warfare.

Eventually, King Nabonidus mysteriously withdrew from the capitol city of Babylon and lived at the Tamya oasis in Arabia for a period of time that lasted seven to ten years. While Nabonidus was in seclusion, his son, Belshazzar, led the administration of the empire from the city of Babylon, under the title of coregent.

The reason as to why King Nabonidus remained away from Babylon for nearly a decade is still a heavily debated issue. Some people think pressure from the priests of Marduk caused the king to leave. Other popular theories suggest that the king had a medical issue. The Prayer of Nabonidus in the Dead Sea Scrolls stated that the king suffered from a terrible ulcer, and went to the oasis at Temya for healing. The Biblical Book of Daniel stated that Belshazzar’s father was at Temya in efforts to recover from a mental illness that made the king behave like livestock, eating blades of grass from the ground. Other historians suggest that King Nabonidus was merely obsessed with archaeology and that his long period of absence was just a huge archaeological expedition to discover ancient ruins and relics.

Regardless of the cause of the king’s retreat to Tamya, Nabonidus was eventually forced to return to Babylon because of a growing threat from Persia that was truly great—in fact, it was none other than Cyrus the Great. In 539 BCE, the Persian Empire and the Neo-Babylonian Empire clashed. King Nabonidus tried to mobilize his forces to push back the Persians, but he was thoroughly outmatched. Ancient accounts of the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire vary significantly regarding how much or little fighting occurred, but the general consensus among modern historians is that the city of Babylon surrendered without a fight, and King Nabonidus was captured by the Persians. As for the fate of Nabonidus, Cyrus reportedly spared the Babylonian king’s life and let the man live out the remainder of his days in exile.

  (Basalt stela of Nabonidus, held by the British Museum, [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

(Nebuchadnezzar and Daniel, by Shigeru Aoki (1882–1911), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons) 

(cropped Nebuchadnezzar by William Blake (1757–1827), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)

Written by C. Keith Hansley.

Sources:

•  Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies: The Role of Cross-Border Trade and Travel by Michael C. Howard. North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers, 2012. 
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nabonidus
• http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/cyrus_I/babylon04.html 
• http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Nabonidus 
• http://www.archaeologyexpert.co.uk/nabodinus.html 
• https://www.ancient.eu/image/4632/